Jambudwip Aur Adhunik Bhaugolik Manyatao Ka Tulnatmaka Vivechan

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Jambudwip aur Adhunik Bhaugolik Manyatao ka Tulnatmaka Vivechan" by Dr. Harindrabhushan Jain:

This book, "Jambudwip and a Comparative Discussion of Modern Geographical Conceptions," by Dr. Harindrabhushan Jain, undertakes a comparative analysis of the Jain concept of Jambudwipa with various historical and modern geographical understandings, including Vedic, Ramayana/Mahabharata, Puranic, Buddhist, and contemporary scientific views.

1. Jambudwipa: Vedic Conception The text begins by stating that Vedic people were not aware of Jambudwipa. Their geographical understanding was limited to the Ganges plain in the east, the Hindu Kush mountains in the northwest, the Indus River in the west, the Himalayas in the north, and the Vindhyas in the south. While Vedic texts mention mountains like "Himavant" (Himalayas) and "Mahameru," which some scholars interpret as the North Pole, the Vedic understanding of oceans and long-distance sea travel is debated among scholars. The Aitareya Brahmana divides the Aryan realm, mentioning "Uttar Kuru" and "Uttar Bhadra" beyond the Himalayas.

2. Jambudwipa: Ramayana and Mahabharata Era Conceptions The Ramayana, particularly the Kishkindha Kanda, provides extensive geographical descriptions. Valmiki was familiar with Jambudwipa, Meru, and Himavan mountains, and Uttar Kuru. The description of Uttar Kuru in the Ramayana, with its ever-flowering trees and residents enjoying all pleasures, aligns with the Jain concept of a "Bhog Bhumi" (land of enjoyment). Scholars like Prof. S.M. Ali note that the Ramayana's placement of Jambudwipa in the center of the Earth resonates with Jain geographical traditions. The Kishkindha Kanda details Jambudwipa's eastward expansion through rivers like Bhagirathi and Sarayu, followed by the Salt Sea, Yavadvipa (Java), Suvarnarupyakadvipa (Borneo), and further eastward, eventually reaching the Devaloka. Similar descriptions are provided for the south, west, and north of Jambudwipa, outlining countries, mountains, and rivers, and culminating in Pitruloka, Varunaloka, and Brahmaloka respectively.

The Mahabharata's geography also places Meru at the center of the Earth. To its north are Bhadravarsa, Ilavarta, and Uttar Kuru, followed by mountains like Nila and Shveta, and regions like Hiranyavarsa. To the south are Ketumala and Jambudwipa, followed by Nishadha, Hemakuta, Himavat, and Bharatavarsha, and the Salt Sea. This description closely resembles the Jain geographical tradition.

3. Jambudwipa: Puranic Conception Most Hindu Puranas describe a Earth composed of seven concentric island-continents separated by seven seas. Jambudwipa is consistently placed at the center, surrounded by the Salt Sea. The Puranas list the island-continents and seas as: Jambudvipa-Lavan Samudra, Plakshadvipa-Ikshu Sagar, Shalmali-Sura Sagar, Kushadvipa-Sarpiṣṣ Sagar, Kraunchadvipa-Dadhisagar, Shakhadvipa-Kṣīra Sagar, and Pushkaradvipa-Svadu Sagar.

4. Jambudwipa: Jain Conception Jain scriptures, including the Tattvarthasutra and Trilok Prajnapti, detail a cosmology divided into three parts: Adholoka (lower realm), Madhyaloka (middle realm), and Urdhvaloka (upper realm). The Madhyaloka contains Jambudwipa at its center, encircled by the Salt Sea. Surrounding this is Dhatakikhanda continent, then the Kalodadhi Sea, and then Pushkaravaradvipa. Jambudwipa is circular, spanning one lakh yojanas, with the Meru mountain (1.40 lakh yojanas high) at its center. The text outlines further island-continents and seas.

Jambudwipa is divided into seven regions (kshetras) by six Kulachala mountains (Himavan, Mahahimavan, Nishadha, Nila, Rukmi, and Shikari). These regions are Bharat, Haimavata, Hari, Videha, Ramya, Hiranvaya, and Airavata. Fourteen rivers flow through these regions, divided into seven pairs, with each river flowing either east or west. The text details the dimensions of these regions, noting that regions north of the mountains and rivers are double the size of those to the south.

Jambudwipa includes two "Bhog Bhumi" (lands of enjoyment) called Dev Kuru and Uttar Kuru, where inhabitants' desires are fulfilled by Kalpavrikshas (wish-fulfilling trees). Haimavata, Hari, Ramya, and Hiranvaya are also considered Bhog Bhumis, while Bharat, Airavata, and Videha (excluding Dev Kuru and Uttar Kuru) are "Karma Bhumi" (lands of action). The text specifically describes Bharat kshetra, detailing the countries within it, such as Sukoshala, Avanti, Pundra, Ashmaka, Kuru, etc.

5. Comparative Discussion of Jambudwipa and Modern Geographical Conceptions The text compares the Puranic "Saptadvipa" (seven island-continents) with modern geography. It notes that while Puranic descriptions differ, some scholars identify the seven island-continents with the seven modern continents or as earlier forms of specific regions. Various theories for this identification are presented, mapping Jambudwipa to India, Plakshadvipa to Arakan and Burma, Kushadvipa to Sund Archipelago, Shalmali to the Malay Peninsula, Kraunchadvipa to South India, Shakhadvipa to Cambodia, and Pushkaradvipa to North China and Mongolia. Other theories propose different regional mappings.

Dr. S.M. Ali's interpretation, based on climate and vegetation, identifies Jambudwipa with India, Shakhadvipa with Southeast Asia and South China, Kushadvipa with Iran and Iraq, Plakshadvipa with the Mediterranean coast, Pushkaradvipa with Scandinavia, Northern European Russia, and Siberia, Shalmali with East Africa and Madagascar, and Kraunchadvipa with the Black Sea coast.

Meru Mountain: The text discusses Meru, described as the navel of Jambudwipa in Jain tradition, at its absolute center. Its height and structure are detailed. While the Vedas do not mention Meru, the concept of "Mahameru" exists. Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Buddhist and Jain texts have similar accounts of its significance and location. Persian, Greek, Chinese, Jewish, and Arab traditions also describe a central cosmic mountain, often identified with Meru, though with variations in name and location. Zoroastrianism's Al-Burj and Chinese Tsing-Ling are compared to Meru.

Various Puranic descriptions of Meru's size and shape are presented, comparing it to a seedcup of a lotus or a bell. The Airavata and Kṣīra sea enclose four islands: Kuru, Godan, Videha, and Jambu.

Modern geographical interpretations attempt to identify Meru's location. The text suggests the Pamir Plateau as a strong candidate due to its elevated nature and the phonetic similarity between "Pamir" and "Meru." The mountains bordering Meru in Puranic and Jain traditions (Nila, Shveta, Shringavan to the north, and Nishadha, Hemakuta, Himavan to the south) are also compared to modern mountain ranges like Kara Tau, Nura Tau, Zarafshan, Hindu Kush, Kunlun, Ladakh, Kailash, and the Great Himalayan range.

The northern regions of Jambudwipa, specifically Ramya (Sogdiana), Hiranyavata (modern Zarafshan river valley, with the river Hiranyavati/Suvarnakula), and Uttar Kuru (western Siberia), are discussed in detail, drawing parallels with ancient kingdoms and geographical features. The western region, Ketumala, is linked to the Oxus River basin and the ancient Bactria kingdom. The eastern region, Bhadravarsa, is associated with the Tarim and Hwangho river basins, encompassing Xinjiang and North China. The southern regions are aligned with the areas south of the Pamirs down to the Indian Ocean, including the Indian subcontinent.

Jambudwipa and Bharatavarsha: Puranic History The Vishnu Purana describes the division of the Earth into seven island-continents among the sons of Priyavrata. Jambudwipa was given to Agnidhra, whose nine sons further divided it. India (Bharatavarsha) is mentioned as one of these divisions. The text highlights the Puranic account of King Nabhi and his son Bharata, the first Tirthankara Rishabha's son, after whom India is named. This mythological narrative is compared to modern scientific theories on the origin of humanity and the diversification of civilizations.

The text notes that "Bharatavarsha" in ancient foreign literature referred to different extents of the Indian subcontinent, from the Punjab (Saptasindhu) to the southernmost parts. Ashoka's empire extended the boundaries significantly, leading to the concept of "Greater India."

In conclusion, the book establishes that the modern geographical understanding of Jambudwipa encompasses a vast area from Siberia and the Arctic Ocean in the north, to the Indian Ocean and its islands in the south, China and Japan (Pacific Ocean) in the east, and the Caspian Sea in the west. The author expresses gratitude to Dr. S.M. Ali for his significant contribution to the research on Puranic geography, which aided in writing this essay.