Jainism Vis A Vis Brahmanism

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided text, "Jainism vis-à-vis Brahmanism" by Bansidhar Bhatt:

Core Argument:

The central thesis of this paper is to demonstrate the mutual resemblances and potential shared origins between early Jainism and Brahmanism, challenging the notion that Jainism emerged solely from a pre-Vedic, non-Brahmanical culture. The author, Bansidhar Bhatt, aims to achieve this by presenting parallel passages from the earliest strata of the Svetambara Jaina Canon and corresponding passages from Brahmanical texts.

Key Themes and Structure:

The paper is structured around providing context and then presenting evidence of these parallels.

I. Prolegomena (Contextualizing the Rise of Reform Religions):

• Two Aryan Immigrations: The text begins by discussing the historical context of Aryan migrations into India, suggesting that earlier settlers maintained more archaic Indo-Aryan traits and established spiritual centers.
• The Atharva-Veda: The Atharva-Veda is presented as an early Vedic text with some "unorthodox" characteristics, reflecting popular customs on the verge of Brahmanical orthodoxy. It's connected to the Vrātyas.
• The Vrātyas: These are described as members of a non-Brahmanical cult of Aryan origin, often wandering kṣatriyas from the northwest. They maintained pure religious character, were near to Brahmanical thought, and organized their own religious groups (saṁghas). They were considered somewhat unorthodox due to contact with earlier Aryans and spoke older dialects.
• Early Upanishads and Disputants: The author notes that early Upanishadic doctrines originated in esoteric Brahmanical circles and that many disputants found in Vedic and Upanishadic literature might be classified as "heretics." These independent thinkers could have been Aryans, non-Aryans, or Aryanized indigenous people.
• Upanishadic Philosophy: Doctrines like punarmṛtyu (repeated death/rebirth), karma, and saṁsāra are attributed to Brahmanical literature, originating and developing within that sphere, though sometimes influenced by ritualistic ideas.
• Asceticism, Karma, and Ahimsā: The paper asserts that ideas about world renunciation (asceticism), the karma theory, and ahiṁsā also originated from Vedic or Brahmanical literature. Scholars like Heesterman, Gerow, Tull, Alsdorf, and Schmidt are cited to support the Vedic/Brahmanical origins and development of these concepts.
• Kṣatriya Influence: The kṣatriyas are highlighted as having a significant social and spiritual influence on early Vedic society. Their interaction with the masses and indigenous beliefs led to the adoption of some Aryan faith by local nobles. Kṣatriyas also initiated philosophical problems and offered speculative ideas that surpassed the Brahmins in areas like transmigration and karma.
• Aryan Eastward March and Situation in the East: The eastward expansion of Aryans led to a loss of contact with Western orthodoxy. In the east, Aryans integrated with native inhabitants, often losing some of the rigidity of Brahmanical rituals. Prakritic languages gained prominence, and caste distinctions loosened.
• Aryan-Non-Aryan Interaction: In the east, non-Aryans outnumbered Aryans, leading to adjustments and accommodations in various spheres of life.
• Small Confederations and Ideological Upheaval: The rise of aristocratic governments in the east fostered an environment where nobles, in their leisure, could develop new speculative ideas in ethics and renunciation, moving away from purely sacrificial practices. There was a strong desire for liberation from worldly suffering, irrespective of caste, and this was seen as achievable through means other than rituals.
• Esoteric vs. Exoteric and Reform in Sanskrit/Prakrit: Upanishadic debates gained royal support, fostering open intellectual discussion. Meanwhile, literature of the common people, often in Prakrit, served as a source for both orthodox Sanskrit literature and the canonical texts of early Buddhists and Jainas, aiming to attract lay followers.
• Caste System and the Śūdras: While caste distinctions became looser in the east, the paper notes that śūdras had restricted spiritual-religious roles. However, the focus of reformists wasn't primarily on attacking the caste system itself, but rather on spiritual values that depended on moral character and renunciation.
• "Kṣatriya Revolution": This ideological shift, driven by kṣatriyas and emphasizing philosophical inquiry, is termed the "first kṣatriya revolution." It paved the way for a later "democratic revolution" exemplified by figures like Gosāla, the Buddha, and Mahāvira.
• The Buddhists and the Jainas: These reform movements inherited speculative ideas, often without direct knowledge of existing orthodox Brahmanical texts, but through contact with popular strata. This led to mutual influences between their texts.
• Democratization in Reform: The literature of the common people influenced both orthodox Aryans and the reformist traditions, marking a "second revolution" where popular thought was integrated into elite thought.
• Sanskrit-Prakrit Parallels: The author emphasizes that finding parallels between later orthodox texts and Jaina/Buddhist texts is common, but tracing them to early Brahmanical and Jaina texts is rewarding and demonstrates mutual communication between orthodoxy and intelligent individuals.

II. The Catalogue of Parallels:

This is the core empirical contribution of the paper. Bhatt explains his methodology:

• Jaina Texts: He focuses on the earliest Svetambara Jaina Canons: Ācārānga-sūtra (Āc.), Sūtrakṛtānga-sūtra (Sū.), Uttarādhyayana-sūtra (Utt.), Daśavaikālika-sūtra (Daśa.), and Rsibhāsitāni (Rs).
• Structure of the Catalogue: The catalogue is organized by Jaina text, with each section dedicated to one text. Units within each section contain a Jaina passage and its corresponding Brahmanical parallel(s).
• Criterion for Similarity: The focus is on verbal and ideological resemblances, aiming to highlight how similar concepts and expressions appear in both traditions.
• Examples of Parallels (as presented in the provided text):
  • Section 1 (Ācārānga-sūtra): Numerous parallels are presented, covering concepts like:
    • Self-reliance ("You yourself are your friend").
    • Non-violence and non-harming.
    • The nature of the self (impersonal, non-dual).
    • The importance of truth (satya).
    • The concept of rebirth and the soul's journey.
    • The nature of suffering and liberation.
    • Ascetic practices and dwelling places.
    • The impermanence of the body.
    • The futility of rituals alone.
    • The concept of knowledge leading to liberation.
    • The renunciation of worldly desires.
    • The immutability of the soul.
    • The concept of the "Self" as the source of knowledge.
    • The idea of not craving life or desiring death.
    • The concept of non-attachment.
    • The characteristics of the liberated soul (e.g., free from sixfold modifications).
    • The importance of spiritual knowledge (prajñā).
    • Brahmacarya (celibacy/holy life) as a path.
    • Not being tainted by actions (karma).
    • The power of truth.
    • The suffering of those in ignorance.
    • The suffering caused by worldly attachments.
    • The cessation of suffering through renunciation.
    • The distinction between the body and the soul.
  • Section 2 (Sūtrakṛtānga-sūtra): Parallels extend to:
    • The concept of a blind leading the blind.
    • The difficulty of the spiritual path.
    • The idea of gaining liberation through spiritual knowledge.
    • The importance of recognizing the rarity of human birth and spiritual teachings.
    • The analogy of a tortoise withdrawing its limbs for self-protection.
    • The concept of achieving liberation through knowledge.
    • The analogy of a donkey carrying sandalwood but not benefiting from its fragrance.
    • The concept of being pure and not stained by the world.
    • The idea of understanding reality through observation and knowledge.
    • The nature of the unborn and eternal soul.
    • The comparison of the self to a boat for crossing the ocean of existence.
    • The inherent suffering in worldly attachments.
    • The concept of understanding the scriptures.
    • The comparison of an enlightened person to a lotus in water.
  • Section 3 (Uttarādhyayana-sūtra): More parallels are found regarding:
    • The indestructibility of the soul.
    • The presence of the self within things, like oil in seeds or fire in wood.
    • Equanimity towards all beings, friends, and enemies, gain and loss, praise and blame.
    • The non-adherence to worldly desires.
    • The analogy of a lotus unstained by water.
    • The concept of an eternal dwelling place beyond birth, death, and suffering.
    • The analogy of a chariot with the self as the rider and intellect as the charioteer.
    • The merging of rivers into the ocean.
    • The incomparable nature of supreme happiness.
    • The importance of spiritual discipline and truth.
    • The analogy of a moon among stars.
    • The idea of seeing the divine within.
    • The comparison of a snake shedding its skin to a liberated soul.
    • The comparison of the unmanifested to the manifested.
  • Section 4 (Daśavaikālika-sūtra and Rsibhāsitāni): Further parallels include:
    • The practice of ethical conduct and non-violence.
    • The origin of fruits from roots (analogy for karma).
    • The practice of begging for alms like a bee collecting honey.
    • The moon illuminated by stars.
    • The concept of knowledge as a fire that burns away karma.
    • The idea of a knowledge that leads to liberation.
    • The analogy of fire without fuel extinguishing itself.

III. Conclusion:

Bhatt concludes that the extensive parallels demonstrate a significant interdisciplinary character between Jainism and Brahmanism, suggesting a complex relationship beyond mere opposition. He argues that Jaina texts do not exhibit a complete aversion to Brahmanical ascetic groups or ideologies, and their early passages show a readiness to engage with Brahmanical concepts. The paper aims to break down the rigid compartmentalization often seen in Indological studies.

In essence, the paper posits that while Jainism developed its own distinct philosophy and practices, its origins and early development were deeply intertwined with the broader religious and intellectual milieu of ancient India, which included Brahmanism. The presented parallels serve as evidence for this interconnectedness, prompting a re-evaluation of the relationship between these two significant Indian traditions.