Jainism Parity And Patriarchy - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jainism: Parity and Patriarchy" by Anand Shah, drawing upon the information presented in the excerpt:

Overall Argument:

The paper argues that while Jainism, like other Indian traditions, is influenced by patriarchy, it offers women a significantly higher degree of parity compared to its contemporaries. This is evident in various theoretical and practical aspects of Jainism, including literacy rates, narratives surrounding women, and the recognition of female mendicants. However, it also acknowledges the persistent presence of patriarchal elements within Jainism, particularly in scripture and the hierarchical structure of the mendicant order.

Key Concepts and Findings:

Jainism in a Nutshell:
- Jainism is an ancient religion with a focus on the soul, nonviolence, and non-possessiveness.
- Jain "gods" are called Tirthankaras, enlightened beings who guide others to liberation, not deities who grant favors. The last Tirthankara was Mahavir Swami.
- Mahavir Swami established the Chaturvidh Sangh, a four-fold order comprising laymen (shravaks), laywomen (shravikas), monks (sadhus), and nuns (sadhvis).
- Liberation is achieved through karma, the soul, and reincarnation.
- There's a significant doctrinal difference between the Shvetamber sect (believing women can attain liberation) and the Digamber sect (believing women cannot due to the necessity of nudity for ascetic life).
Jain Theory and Women:
- Stories as Imaging: Jain tradition features stories of virtuous women, particularly mahasatis (great virtuous women) and jinamatas (mothers of Jinas).
- Shravikas (Laywomen):
  - Maynasundari: A prominent example, often considered the model Jain woman. Her story highlights:
    - Agency and Faith: She asserts her right to choose her husband based on her faith and destiny, challenging her father's patriarchal authority.
    - Devotion and Spiritual Knowledge: She demonstrates devotion to her husband by joining him in hardship and uses her spiritual knowledge to cure him of leprosy. This emphasizes both wifely devotion and individual spiritual agency within a patriarchal system.
    - Contrast with Hinduism: While sharing the devotional aspect of Hindu "pativrata" (devoted wife), Maynasundari's story also emphasizes her spiritual agency as a legitimate value, providing a reason to question patriarchal authority when it conflicts with faith.
  - Jinamatas: Their stories often focus on pregnancy and nurturing, emphasizing caretaker roles, but some, like Marudevi Mata (mother of the first Tirthankara), achieved liberation, which Shvetambar women take pride in.
  - Negative Portrayals: Jain literature also contains negative portrayals of women as sexual temptresses. The Civakacintamani is cited for its explicit descriptions of female genitalia, often associated with danger. The Sutrakritanga Sutra warns monks about women as "wily trappers." This tendency is seen as amplified by Jainism's focus on renouncing worldly pleasures, including sexual ones.
- Sadhvis (Female Mendicants):
  - Chandanbala: A key figure, she is the first sadhvi of Mahavir Swami. Her story exemplifies:
    - Sacrifice and Faith: She endures hardship and demonstrates unwavering faith, meeting specific criteria for Mahavir Swami to break his fast.
    - Soteriological Agency: Her journey and renunciation are celebrated, highlighting women's capacity for personal spiritual progress and self-determined paths, which challenges patriarchal limitations.
    - Reasons for Renunciation: Field interviews indicate that women choose renunciation for honor, autonomy, and education.
  - Scriptural Inequality: While celebrating the agency of sadhvis, scripture sometimes genders conduct for monks and nuns, often reflecting a view of women as more fragile and vulnerable. The text notes that the vows for mendicants, while theoretically the same, are often framed with a male audience in mind.
- Mallinath: The only female Tirthankara in Shvetambar tradition.
  - Her womanhood is attributed to a minor transgression in a past life.
  - Interestingly, field interviews reveal she is not a primary source of inspiration for Jain women, possibly because her liberation is seen as an extraordinary, unrepeatable event.
  - Her story doesn't strongly emphasize uniquely feminine characteristics, as she renounced worldly life before engaging in typical womanhood experiences.
  - Jainism distinguishes between dravyalinga (biological sex) and bhavalinga (psychic gender), with the latter having higher importance. Mallinath, in her heightened spiritual state, transcends conventional gender notions.
Jain Practice and Women:
- Jains in Merchant Classes:
  - Jains exhibit the highest female literacy rates in India.
  - While Jains are disproportionately in merchant classes, and merchant classes can be more conservative, analysis of literacy rates suggests general class standing plays a more significant role than concentration within merchant professions.
- Property Rights (Pre-1955):
  - Jain law, subsumed under Hindu law in 1955, offered women more favorable property rights than traditional Hindu law.
  - Daughters: Were entitled to inheritance, though not always equal to brothers. Hindu law did not mandate inheritance for daughters.
  - Widows: Gained absolute control of inheritance upon their husband's death, even if sons existed. In Hindu law, sons inherited absolutely due to the concept of pindadana (offering oblations to ancestors), which is not a factor in Jain philosophy where karma is individual.
- Sangh (Mendicant Order):
  - Jainism readily established a female mendicant order (nuns), with female mendicants historically outnumbering male mendicants.
  - Hierarchical Restrictions: Despite numerical parity, nuns face restrictions, including not being allowed to be alone, travel alone, or perform certain meditative postures. They are often subordinate to monks, regardless of seniority, and historically cannot hold leadership titles like Acharya or Suri.
  - Justifications for Restrictions: These restrictions, found in scriptures like the Cheda-sutras, are often justified by the belief in women's fragility and vulnerability, particularly concerning chastity.
  - Conclusion on Sangh: While Jainism has outpaced many Indian traditions in recognizing female mendicants, the reproduction of domestic and societal patriarchal structures is evident in the hierarchy and restrictions placed upon nuns.

Conclusion:

The paper concludes that Jainism offers women a greater degree of parity than its contemporaries, evidenced by high female literacy, positive mendicant ratios, and favorable property rights. However, it also recognizes that Jainism continues to grapple with the patriarchal influences of its cultural context. These influences manifest in scriptural portrayals of women as sexual objects and restrictions on nuns. The authors express hope that Jainism's ongoing negotiation between its philosophy and culture, coupled with the dynamic nature of cultural creation, can lead to further advancements in gender parity.