Jainism In Kalingadesa - Book Summary

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Book Title: Jainism in Kalingadesa Author: Dr. Bool Chand, M.A., Ph.D. (Lond.) Publisher: Jain Cultural Research Society Bulletin No.: 7

This book explores the historical presence and significance of Jainism in the ancient region of Kalingadesa (modern-day Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh in India).

I. Defining Kalinga and its Early Perceptions:

Geographical Extent: Kalinga is described as a kingdom generally extending from Tamluk to mid-Ganjam on the coast, with the Ganges as its northern boundary, forests to the south, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Its western boundary was variable, sometimes including South Kosala.
Early Mentions: Kalinga is not mentioned in Vedic literature, though attempts are made to link it to Southern kingdoms. The Mahabharata mentions it as a forest kingdom. The Arthashastra notes a special cotton fabric from Kalinga.
Aryan Perspective: In the time of the Sutras (like Bodhayana's Dharma Sutra), countries beyond the Indus and Yamuna were considered mlechcha-desa (land of barbarians). Kalinga was considered outside the pale of Aryan civilization, but people of Kalinga were given a slight preference over those of Eastern and Northern Bengal, who were considered untouchables. The author speculates this distinction might be due to Kalinga's Dravidian connections.
Jain Perspective: Jain literature, while referring to Western Bengal as anarya-desa (non-Aryan land), does not categorize Kalinga as such, suggesting a more favorable view from a Jain perspective.

II. Kalinga as a Jain Stronghold:

Early Introduction of Jainism: Around the 7th century B.C., Kalinga is thought to have become part of Aryavarta. Early Buddhist texts mention Kalinga with its capital Dantapur, though it wasn't among the sixteen Mahajanapadas.
Kalinga's Role in Cultural Diffusion: Kalinga played a crucial role as a channel for northern Indian cultures to filter southwards. The earliest of these northern cultures to reach the South is presumed to be Jainism.
Jainism and Dravidian Culture: The Sramana system of Jainism (and Buddhism) is presented as a compromise between Aryan and Dravidian ways of life and thought. While Jain Tirthankaras were of Aryan stock, Jainism's philosophy, with its more democratic and individualistic spirit, resonated more with the indigenous Dravidian elements of Kalinga's population, with whom it had traditional connections.
Evidence of Early Jainism:
- Jain sacred literature mentions congregations of Tirthankaras including non-Aryans, treated with equal dignity.
- Mahavira's Visit: Tradition states that Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, visited Kalinga and preached Jainism there, at the kingdom of his father's friend.
- Hathigumpha Inscription: This inscription mentions the image of "Kalinga-Jina," which was taken from Kalinga by a Nanda king and later recovered by Kharavela. This Kalinga-Jina is identified as Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, who died 250 years before Mahavira. This implies Jainism was present in Kalinga even before Mahavira's time, as Parsva was worshipped by the Jain Sangha and Mahavira's father was a worshipper of Parsva.

III. Early History and the Era of Kharavela:

Emergence with Nandas: Kalinga enters historical records with the rise of the Nandas.
Independence: Kalinga regained independence from Magadha after Ashoka's death, long before the fall of the Maurya dynasty.
Hathigumpha Inscription: This is the primary source of information for Kharavela's reign and the third period of Kalinga's independence. It's located on the Hathigumpha cavern on Udaigiri hill near Bhuvaneshwar.
- Language: Written in Apabhramsa Prakrita with traces of Ardha Magadhi and Jain Prakritisms.
- Controversy over Date: Initially, a 16th-line reading was interpreted as "165 Maurya era" (157 B.C.). However, this was later revised to refer to a canonical Jain text that fell out of use during the Mauryas, leading to controversy.
- Jain Affiliation: The inscription begins with an invocation to Arhat and Siddhas, clearly indicating it's a Jain inscription and Kharavela was a Jain monarch.
- Kharavela's Lineage: He is described as "Aila" from the Chedi dynasty. His father is not mentioned, leading to speculation about matriarchal society.

IV. Kharavela's Reign (Detailed Account from Hathigumpha Inscription):

Accession: Became Yuvaraja at 15, anointed king at 24.
First Year: Repaired damages to Kalinga city caused by a cyclone, built forts, dams, walls, and gardens, pleasing his people.
Second Year: Campaign westwards reaching the Krishna river, causing terror to the Mushikas (likely allies of the Satavahana king Satakarni).
Third Year: Celebrations and establishment of pastimes in the capital.
Fourth Year: References to previous kings' city, compelling the Rashtrikas and Bhojakas to submit.
Fifth Year: Extended a canal built by the Nandas to his capital. Tosali is suggested as his capital.
Sixth Year: Performed the Rajasuya-Yajna and remitted taxes. The performance of this sacrifice by a Jain king further supports Kalinga as a cultural conduit.
Seventh Year: Possible birth of a child to his queen, a princess from Vajjra-ghara (identified with Bengal).
Eighth Year: Campaign in North India, fighting at Gorathagiri (Barabar hill) near Magadha.
Ninth Year: Donated elephants, chariots, and horses to Brahmins; built a palace ("Maha-Vijaya") at significant cost.
Tenth Year: Second campaign in North India, with details lost.
Eleventh Year: Campaign in the South, destroyed Pithunda, and broke a Tamil king's league (as interpreted by Prof. Banerji).
Twelfth Year: Conquered North India, plundered Pataliputra, compelled the Magadha king Brihaspati-Mitra (possibly Pushyamitra Sunga) to surrender. Recovered the Kalinga-Jina image. Subdued the Pandyas.
Thirteenth Year: Devoted to religious meditation and activity. Made arrangements for Jain monks on Kumari hill (where Mahavira preached), built a relic memorial. Convened a Jain Council to compile the canon, possibly after losses during the Mauryan religious upheaval.
Legacy: Kharavela was a powerful monarch who elevated Kalinga's status. The inscription provides rare chronological detail about a king's reign in ancient India and insights into heir-apparent training.

V. Further Inscriptions and Kharavela's Date:

Svargapuri Cave Inscription: An inscription by Kharavela's chief queen refers to him as "Kalinga-Chakravartin," suggesting he might have become an overlord of "Tri-Kalinga." However, the term "Tri-Kalinga" is not explicitly mentioned in records before the 7th century A.D., and its meaning is tied to later territorial divisions.
Dating Kharavela:
- References to the Yavana king Demetrios (who retreated from Mathura) and the Andhra king Satakarni help place Kharavela in the first half of the 2nd century B.C.
- The inscription's connection to the Nanda era (year 103) and the mention of Satakarni (rival in the 2nd year of Kharavela's reign) provide further chronological anchors.

VI. Later History of Kalinga:

Kudepasiri: Kharavela's dynasty continued with King Kudepasiri, who also styled himself similarly.
Fratricidal War and Disruption: A fratricidal war between rival Kalinga kingdoms (Kapilapura and Simhapura) is believed to have occurred after Kharavela's death, disrupting territorial integrity.
Satavahana Conquest: Kalinga may have ultimately fallen to the Satavahanas before their conquest of Magadha in the 1st century B.C. Gautamiputra Satakarni's conquest of the Mahendra and Malaya hills is seen as evidence of Kalinga's subjugation.
Post-Satavahana Period: After the decline of Andhra power, Kalinga experienced Yavana rule (possibly Kshatrapas) and migration of its ruling family to Ceylon.
Gupta Influence: A part of Kalinga was included in the Gupta empire, but the majority remained outside. Samudragupta's campaign likely reached the Ganjam district, and Kalinga fell within the Gupta zone of influence, with the Gupta era being used in inscriptions in the Ganjam area. Jainism likely retained its ascendancy, coexisting with other faiths.
Post-Gupta Obscurity and Division: After the Gupta empire's fragmentation, Kalinga may have regained some power. Yuan Chwang (7th century A.D.) described Kalinga as divided into three parts: U'cha (Odra), Kong-yu-to (Kugoda), and Ki-ling-kia (Kalinga). The people were described as rude but observant of good faith.
Religious Shift: Around this time, Nagarjuna of Kanchi converted Kalinga to Mahayana Buddhism, which later evolved into Neo-Vaishnavite Hinduism, with Jagannath Puri becoming a major center.

Overall Significance:

The book establishes Kalinga as a significant region in the early spread and patronage of Jainism in India, particularly highlighting the pivotal role of King Kharavela and the invaluable historical evidence provided by the Hathigumpha inscription. It traces the evolving political and religious landscape of Kalinga, from its perception by Aryans to its status as a Jain stronghold and its eventual interactions with other major powers and religious movements.