Jainism In Ealy Medieval Karnataka

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Overall Focus:

The book "Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka (c. A.D. 500-1200)" by Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh delves into the significant role and evolution of Jainism in the Karnataka region of India during the early medieval period. It aims to provide an in-depth understanding of Jaina religious practices, social organization, monastic life, and intellectual contributions, drawing extensively from both literary and epigraphic sources available in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada.

Key Themes and Chapters:

The book is structured into several chapters, each exploring a crucial aspect of Jainism's presence in Karnataka:

• Introduction: This chapter establishes the geographical boundaries of Karnataka during the early medieval period, noting the significance of the region for Jainism and highlighting the gap in scholarly attention to South Indian Jainism compared to the North. It sets the stage by mentioning the historical dominance of Jainism in Karnataka for nearly a millennium, with Śravaṇa-Belgola serving as a major center.

• Sources: This chapter meticulously details the various sources used for the study.

  • Jaina Literature: It categorizes Jaina literature into Jaina Puranas (narrative works, including adaptations of Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata), didactic literature (ethical works), polemical literature (critiques of other faiths and internal Jaina debates), philosophical treatises (expounding Jaina doctrines), Jaina tantric texts (focusing on goddesses and occult practices), stotra literature (hymns), and colophons (providing genealogical and chronological information). The importance of works like the Adipurāṇa, Uttarapurāṇa, Harivamsapurāṇa, Padmapurāṇa, Yaśastilaka, and Varangacarita is highlighted.
  • Jaina Inscriptions: The book emphasizes the crucial role of inscriptions, particularly votive and donative records, in understanding Jaina patronage, temple construction, rituals, and the social basis of Jaina establishments. It notes the abundance of Jaina inscriptions in Karnataka, especially around Śravaṇa-Belgola.
  • Jaina Iconography: This section discusses how Jaina sculptures and icons help in identifying Jinas, their attendant deities, and understanding changes in their status and worship.

• Idol Worship and Tantrism: This chapter explores the emergence and prevalence of idol worship among Karnataka Jainas. It notes that while early Jainism was critical of ritualism, idol worship became an integral part of religious duty for lay followers by the early centuries of the Christian era. The chapter also details various forms of Jaina worship, temple rituals, the rise of a priesthood from ascetics, and the significant association of Jaina goddesses (like Jvālāmālini and Padmāvati) with tantric practices. This section highlights the "Hinduization" of Jainism, with Jinas being equated with Hindu deities and the adoption of Brahmanical rituals and symbolism.

• Religious Rituals and Practices of the Karnataka Jainas: This chapter offers a detailed examination of Jaina practices:

  • Sallekhana (Voluntary Self-Sacrifice): It describes this significant Jaina rite of death by fasting, its philosophical underpinnings, different procedures for its observance, and its prevalence among monks, nuns, and laypeople across all social strata from the 7th century onwards.
  • Jaina Initiation Rite: The chapter outlines the process of initiation for monks and nuns, noting similarities and differences with the traditional Brahmanical rites, including the controversial adoption of the sacred thread ceremony and the exclusion of Śūdras from initiation.
  • Domestic Rituals: It details various Jaina domestic rites, from conception to the end of life, and notes the adoption of Hindu sacraments like garbhadhāna, nāmakaraṇa, and the sacred thread ceremony, demonstrating a syncretic approach.
  • Dana (Charity Ritual): This section highlights the immense importance of charity in Jainism, detailing the objects of gift, qualifications of recipients, and the role of charity houses (dāna-śālās) attached to monasteries.
  • Begging and Dietary Practices: The chapter discusses the strict dietary rules for Jaina monks, including the practice of begging, abstaining from night meals, and eating in a standing position, while also noting some relaxations in settled monastic life.
  • Rain Retreat (Caturmāsa): It describes the traditional practice of monks staying in one place during the rainy season to avoid harming insects, a practice deeply rooted in the principle of ahimsa.
  • Jaina Penance: This section reiterates the importance of both external and internal penances for purification, detailing the twelve types of austerities prescribed in Jaina texts and their practices.

• Origin and Growth of Jaina Monachism in Karnataka: This chapter focuses on the development of monastic institutions.

  • Transition from Wandering to Settled Life: It traces the shift from the solitary, wandering life of early Jain ascetics to the establishment of permanent monasteries and temples, noting this development from the 4th century onwards.
  • Social Basis of Jaina Monasteries: The chapter examines the patronage received from rulers, ministers, nobles, and merchants, noting the increasing involvement of merchants from the 10th century onwards.
  • Economic Aspects of Monasteries: It details the financial foundations of monasteries through land and village grants, the role of monasteries as landowners, and the nascent feudal tendencies observed in their organization.
  • Proliferation of Monastic Orders: The book discusses the emergence of various monastic orders like the Mūla Sangha, Yāpaniya Sangha, Dravida Sangha, and others, highlighting their regional distribution and doctrinal differences.
  • Order of Nuns: It acknowledges the existence and some prominence of nuns, noting their subordination to monks but also their administrative roles and, in some instances, their influence over male disciples, potentially reflecting matriarchal traditions.
  • Church Administration: This section outlines the hierarchical structure of Jaina monastic organization, with the ācārya as the chief pontiff, and the administrative and social functions of monasteries, including education and charity.

• Conclusion: The concluding chapter summarizes the key findings, emphasizing Jainism's significant impact on Karnataka's religious, cultural, and political landscape from the 5th to the 12th century. It highlights the adaptation of Jaina practices to local conditions, including the adoption of Hindu elements, which contributed to its survival and influence. It notes the shift from strict puritanism to a more accommodating approach, driven by the need for popular appeal and self-preservation in a changing religious environment.

Key Arguments and Observations:

• Syncretism and Adaptation: A major theme is how Jainism in Karnataka adapted to prevailing socio-religious conditions, incorporating Brahmanical rituals, deities (especially goddesses), and social structures like caste. This adaptation is seen as crucial for its sustenance and widespread acceptance.
• Patronage: The crucial role of royal and noble patronage in the growth and establishment of Jaina monasteries and temples is consistently highlighted.
• Role of Monasteries: Jaina monasteries were not just religious centers but also hubs of learning, charity, and economic activity, accumulating significant landholdings and exerting considerable social and political influence.
• Evolution of Practices: The book traces the evolution of Jaina practices, from the early emphasis on asceticism and non-possession to the later acceptance of idol worship, tantrism, and even certain Brahmanical rituals.
• Social Basis: Jainism gained followers from various social strata, initially supported by rulers and elites, and later by merchants and common people, especially as monastic practices became more relaxed.
• Internal Diversity: The proliferation of monastic orders (sanghas, ganas, gacchas) indicates the internal diversity and dynamism within Digambara Jainism in Karnataka.

In essence, Ram Bhushan Prasad Singh's work offers a detailed and nuanced account of Jainism's rich history in early medieval Karnataka, underscoring its cultural impact, institutional development, and remarkable ability to adapt and thrive within a complex religious milieu.