Jainism In Buddhist Literature

This comprehensive summary synthesizes the key themes and arguments presented in Bhagchandra Jain Bhaskar's book, "Jainism in Buddhist Literature." The work meticulously analyzes Buddhist textual references to Jainism, aiming to establish the historical, philosophical, and ethical connections and distinctions between these two prominent ancient Indian religions.

Core Thesis and Methodology:

The book's central argument is that while Jainism and Buddhism share common roots in the Śramaņa tradition and exhibit certain doctrinal similarities due to their contemporaneous existence and shared geographical context, Jainism is an independent and arguably older tradition. The author, Bhagchandra Jain Bhaskar, a Jaina scholar with expertise in Pāli and Prakrit, embarks on a detailed comparative study. His methodology involves a thorough examination of Buddhist canonical and non-canonical literature, including the Tipitaka, Sanskrit Buddhist works, and commentaries, alongside Jaina scriptures in Prakrit and Sanskrit. He aims to assess the accuracy and completeness with which Buddhist literature has recorded Jaina dogmas and teachings.

Key Areas of Analysis and Findings:

1. Historical Background and Antiquity:

   • The book establishes the Śramaņa culture as a distinct, potentially pre-Vedic stream of thought that emphasized self-effort, equality, and liberation from the cycle of birth and death, contrasting it with the Vedic/Brahmanical system's ritualism and caste hierarchy.
   • It argues for the independent origin and antiquity of Jainism, refuting earlier theories that viewed it as an offshoot of Buddhism. The author highlights evidence suggesting Jaina practices predated Mahāvīra, with Pārśvanātha being a significant figure in its earlier development.
   • The book notes the contemporaneity of Mahāvīra and Buddha, discussing their shared geographical areas of preaching and the acknowledged interaction and occasional ideological influence.
   • Buddhist literature refers to six prominent Śramaņa teachers of the era, including Mahāvīra (Nigantḥa Nātaputta), whose doctrines are presented with varying degrees of accuracy and often through a lens of Buddhist critique. The book details the teachings attributed to each of these figures as found in Pāli texts.

2. Jaina Philosophy in Buddhist Literature:

   • Six Dravyas and Seven Tattvas: Buddhist texts, particularly the Pāli Canon, show awareness of the Jaina concept of six dravyas (soul, matter, principle of motion, principle of rest, space, and time) and the seven Tattvas (soul, non-soul, influx of karma, bondage, stoppage of influx, shedding of karma, and liberation). While not always systematically presented, these Jaina categories are identifiable and often subjected to Buddhist critique or reinterpretation.
   • Concept of Soul (Jiva): Buddhist literature reflects the Jaina understanding of the soul as eternal, conscious, and extending to the size of the body. The Jaina emphasis on "Anekāntavāda" (non-absolutism) in understanding the soul, allowing for both permanence and change, is contrasted with the Buddhist doctrine of "Anatta" (non-soul) and momentariness.
   • Karma: The Jaina doctrine of karma, its inflow (Āśrava), bondage (Bandha), stoppage (Samvara), and shedding (Nirjarā), is recognized. The Buddhist concept of karma is compared, particularly the Jaina emphasis on intention (Kayadanda being more heinous than Manodanda if intentional) versus the Buddha's emphasis on the mind (Manodanda being most heinous). The Jaina notion of Triyoga (body, speech, and mind) as the channels for karma is noted as influential.
   • Mokşa (Liberation): Buddhist texts acknowledge the Jaina goal of liberation from karmic bondage through severe penance and right knowledge, linking it to the Jaina concept of freedom from all karmic matter.
   • Nature of Universe and Word: The Jaina view of the universe as an eternal, uncreated combination of six dravyas, and the nature of the word as atomic (pudgala), are discussed. Buddhist critiques, particularly from Santarakṣita, are presented, challenging Jaina notions of permanence within change and the dual character of reality.
   • Anekāntavāda (Non-absolutism): This cornerstone of Jaina philosophy, positing that reality has infinite aspects and that truth is relative to the standpoint taken, is explored. The book traces its rudiments in early Pali literature, noting the Buddhist concept of Vibhajjavāda (analytical explanation) and the Buddha's use of anekamsika (non-categorical) assertions. The author argues that the Buddhist Sammutisacca and Paramatthasacca are akin to Jaina Vyavaharanyaya and Niscayanaya.
   • Syādvāda (Conditional Predication): Presented as the synthetic counterpart to Nayavada, Syadvada, with its sevenfold predication ("Syāt..." - "perhaps" or "relatively"), is highlighted as a uniquely Jaina contribution to Indian philosophy. The book discusses its potential early roots and its complex relationship with Buddhist skepticism (Amaravikkhepika) and the Buddha's own analytical approach. Buddhist critiques of Syadvada, particularly regarding self-contradiction and the dual character of reality, are extensively analyzed, along with Jaina responses to these criticisms, emphasizing that Buddhist philosophers often misunderstood the relativistic nature of Syadvada.
   • Epistemology (Pramāņa): The book details the Jaina epistemological framework, differentiating between Pratyaksa (direct knowledge) and Parokşa (indirect knowledge). It contrasts the Jaina definitions of Pratyaksa (as self-cognition or paramārthika pratyaksa) with the Buddhist focus on nirvikalpaka pratyakşa (indeterminate perception). The Jaina classification of knowledge (mati, śruta, avadhi, manahparyāya, kevala) and the Buddhist critiques of Jaina omniscience (Kevalajñāna) are discussed, noting how Buddhist texts sometimes portray omniscience in the Buddha in ways that echo Jaina claims. The different interpretations of anumāna (inference) and the validity of other pramāņas like smrti (memory), tarka (reasoning), and agama (testimony) are also examined.

3. Jaina Ethics in Buddhist Literature:

   • Vows: The book discusses the Jaina vows (vratas) for householders and monks. It notes the difference between the Pañcāṇuvratas (five minor vows) for householders and Pañcamahāvratas (five great vows) for monks. The Pali Canon's references to Jain vows, particularly the Caturyāmasamvara of Pārśvanātha and its later expansion into five vows by Mahāvīra (with the omission of Parigraha in some Pali accounts), are analyzed.
   • Monastic Life: The strict ascetic practices of Jaina monks, including nakedness (acelakatva), hair-plucking (keśaloñcana), food regulations, and fasting, are described. Buddhist critiques of nakedness and extreme asceticism are presented, contrasting them with the Buddha's "Middle Path."
   • Ethical Principles: The Jaina emphasis on non-violence (ahimsā), the duties of householders (including Guna vratas and Sikṣāvratas), and the concept of stages of ethical evolution (pratimas) are discussed in relation to Buddhist ethical frameworks.
   • Uposatha: The Jaina observance of Uposatha (fasting days) is examined, including comparisons with Buddhist and potentially other Śramaņa practices, and critiques found in Pali literature are analyzed.

4. Jainism in Buddhist Literature and its Significance:

   • The book highlights that despite potential misunderstandings and criticisms, Buddhist literature provides valuable, albeit sometimes scanty, information about Jainism.
   • It concludes that Buddhist scholars possessed a significant, though not always complete or unbiased, understanding of Jaina philosophy and ethics. The critical engagement between the two traditions ultimately contributed to the richer landscape of Indian philosophical discourse.
   • The author acknowledges the linguistic and conceptual challenges in such comparative studies, emphasizing the need for mastery of multiple ancient Indian languages and philosophical traditions.

Overall Contribution:

"Jainism in Buddhist Literature" is a scholarly work that significantly contributes to the understanding of the historical and intellectual relationship between Jainism and Buddhism. By meticulously analyzing Buddhist texts, it provides crucial insights into how Jainism was perceived, represented, and interacted with by its contemporary rival, Buddhism, shedding light on the shared cultural milieu and the distinct philosophical evolutions of these two ancient paths. The book underscores Jainism's independence and antiquity while detailing the specific points of contact, critique, and influence between the two traditions.