Jainacharyo Ka Shasan Bhed - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Jainacharyo ka Shasan Bhed" (The Differences in the Teachings of Jain Acharyas) by Jugalkishor Mukhtar, based on the provided pages:

Book Title: Jainacharyo ka Shasan Bhed (जैनआचार्योंका शासनभेद) - The Differences in the Teachings of Jain Acharyas Author: Jugalkishor Mukhtar Publisher: Jain Granth Ratnakar Karyalay Publication Year: V.S. 1985 (1928 CE) - First Edition

Overview and Author's Intent:

This book, authored by the renowned scholar Pandit Jugalkishor Mukhtar, is presented as a groundbreaking work exploring the historical and doctrinal differences among Jain Acharyas after Lord Mahavir. Mukhtar's primary goal is to bring clarity and understanding to the Jain community about the evolution and variations within Jain teachings and practices. He aims to dispel the misconception that all Jain Tirthankaras and subsequent Acharyas had identical, unchanging doctrines. Instead, he posits that, like any evolving tradition, Jainism adapted to the needs and conditions of different times and populations.

Mukhtar emphasizes that these differences are not a sign of conflict but rather a testament to the dynamic nature of religious guidance, akin to how a physician adjusts medicine based on the patient's condition. He argues that genuine differences, when rooted in good intentions and a desire for the welfare of the followers, can be progressive and indicative of the religion's vitality.

Key Themes and Content:

The book is structured to systematically present these variations, focusing on core aspects of Jain practice:

Differences in Tirthankara Teachings (with historical context):
- Mukhtar begins by asserting that even the Tirthankaras' teachings were not monolithic. He draws on texts like "Moolachar" to demonstrate that Lord Mahavir made adaptations to the teachings of Lord Parshvanath, citing the need to cater to the varying natures and capacities of disciples across different eras (e.g., tendencies towards simplicity or complexity, strength or weakness of mind).
- He highlights that the core objective of all Tirthankaras remains the same: liberating souls from karmic impurities. However, the means and methods employed varied according to the prevailing circumstances, much like different remedies for the same disease.
Differences in Acharya Teachings (post-Mahavir):
- Mukhtar then delves into the differences among Acharyas after Lord Mahavir, acknowledging that these variations exist in both the Digambara and Shvetambara traditions. His intent is to provide a factual account to foster correct understanding and encourage deeper research.
Ashta Mulgunas (Eight Fundamental Virtues for Laypeople):
- This is a major focus of the book. Mukhtar meticulously outlines the variations in the definition and composition of the Ashta Mulgunas (the eight essential vows for lay householders) as prescribed by different Acharyas.
  - Swami Samantabhadra: Defined the Ashta Mulgunas as the five anuvratas (minor vows: non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession) along with the abstention from alcohol, meat, and honey.
  - Acharya Jinasena: Modified Samantabhadra's list by replacing "abstention from honey" with "abstention from gambling," possibly due to regional customs or a desire to include all seven deadly vices.
  - Acharya Somadeva Suri and Acharya Devsen: Presented a significantly different set, replacing the five anuvratas with the abstention from five specific udumbara (fig-like) fruits (e.g., plaksha, nyagrodha). Mukhtar finds this inclusion peculiar, as the abstention from udumbara fruits often overlaps with the prohibition of meat. He suggests this change might have been made to simplify the vows for a broader section of the community, making them more "common" to both ascetics and laypeople.
  - Acharya Amitagati: Added "abstention from night-eating" to the list, making it nine mulgunas.
  - Pandit Ashadharji: While generally following Somadeva, he indicates that the number eight is not rigid and that abstention from activities like eating at night, drinking un-strained water, etc., should also be practiced. He also quotes a verse listing virtues like abstention from intoxicating substances, meat, honey, five types of fruits, praise of deities, compassion towards living beings, and filtering water. Mukhtar notes the ambiguity of "compassion towards living beings" as a separate mulguna.
- Mukhtar interprets the shift from anuvratas to udumbara fruits as an attempt to make the vows more universally applicable and less demanding in their initial form, possibly to bring more people under the umbrella of Jain lay practice.
Anuvratas (Minor Vows) and Ratribhojanavirati (Abstention from Night-Eating):
- The book discusses the primary five anuvratas (non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy, non-possession), which are universally recognized.
- However, a significant portion is dedicated to the debate surrounding Ratribhojanavirati (abstaining from eating at night).
  - Some Acharyas consider it a sixth anuvrata.
  - Others, like Acharya Viranandi, see it as a way to protect the other vows.
  - Acharya Chamundaraya explicitly calls it the sixth anuvrata, differentiating between abstaining from just food or all types of sustenance at night.
  - Mukhtar notes the significant difference in how Ratribhojanavirati is integrated into the stages of Jain lay practice (vow-taking, pratimas), with some making it mandatory early on and others assigning it to later stages or the sixth pratima (stage of practice).
  - He critically analyzes the Shvetambara view, where such prohibitions are often placed within the Bhoga-upabhoga-parimana (vow of limiting consumption) rather than being a separate anuvrata or mulguna. He questions why a strict prohibition like abstaining from night-eating wasn't made a fundamental vow for all Jains, unlike the Digambara tradition's approach.
- Mukhtar argues that Ratribhojanavirati is a distinct vow that can be both an anuvrata and a mahavrata (major vow for ascetics). He suggests that its inclusion as a separate vow is consistent with the Jain principle of adapting practices to the needs of the time, such as during periods of hardship when adherence to vows might have weakened.
Gunavratas (Enhancing Vows) and Shikshavratas (Training Vows):
- Mukhtar explores the variations in the composition and ordering of the three gunavratas and four shikshavratas (collectively the seven sheelavratas).
- He notes that while the total number (three gunavratas, four shikshavratas) is generally consistent, the specific vows included and their order differ among prominent Acharyas.
- Key differences highlighted:
  - Kundakunda Acharya (and Devsen, Shivkoti): Defines gunavratas as spatial limitation (deshavrikati), abstention from useless/harmful activities (anarthadanda virati), and limitation of consumption (bhoga-upabhoga parimana). His shikshavratas include samayika (equanimity), proshadhopavasa (fasting on specific days), atithi-samvibhaga (sharing with guests/ascetics), and sallekhana (graceful dying/fasting unto death).
  - Umaswati (and Pujyapada, Vidyānanda, Somadeva, Amitagati, Jinasena, Chamuṇḍarāya): Presents a different classification. He lists digvrikati (directional limitation), deshavrikati (partial limitation), and anarthadanda virati as gunavratas. His shikshavratas include samayika, proshadhopavasa, upabhoga-parimana, and atithi-samvibhaga. Notably, Umaswati does not include sallekhana as a shikshavrata but as a separate practice for both ascetics and laypeople, a point supported by his commentators. Mukhtar discusses the debated ordering of deshavrikati by Umaswati, suggesting it might be for easier comprehension, though this explanation is not fully convincing to him.
  - Swami Samantabhadra: Shares Kundakunda's view on gunavratas but differs on shikshavratas, replacing sallekhana with deshavkashika (another term for deshavrikati or spatial limitation) and adding vaiyavrittya (service to ascetics) instead of atithi-samvibhaga. Mukhtar notes that Samantabhadra's inclusion of vaiyavrittya broadens the scope of service beyond mere sharing of food.
  - Swami Kartikeya: Lists deshavkashika as the fourth shikshavrata, modifying its scope to include restriction of sense objects along with spatial limitation. He also replaces vaiyavrittya with dana (charity).
  - Acharya Vasunandi: Divides bhoga-upabhoga parimana into two shikshavratas (bhogavirati and paribhogavirati) and omits samayika and proshadhopavasa from the shikshavratas, perhaps considering them as distinct stages (pratimas). Mukhtar points out the logical inconsistency of placing sallekhana as a shikshavrata since it's a singular practice at the end of life, not something for repeated practice or training.

Conclusion:

Mukhtar concludes by reiterating that these differences in the "Shasan" (teachings and practices) of Jain Acharyas are not contradictions of core Jain principles but rather adaptations made to suit the times, the disciples, and the prevailing conditions. He advocates for a rational and open-minded approach to understanding these variations, urging readers to focus on the underlying objective of liberation from suffering. He suggests that these diverse practices are like different prescriptions for the same ailment, each potentially effective in its context. Mukhtar encourages further research into these historical variations and the underlying socio-cultural factors.

The book's appendices further support this thesis by detailing the differences in the charitra (conduct) prescribed by various Tirthankaras, highlighting how even the earliest ones like Rishabhanatha and Mahavir had distinct approaches that differed from the twenty-two Tirthankaras in between them. This is attributed to the differing natures of disciples in various eras – the simpler, less intellectually capable disciples of earlier times versus the more complex, sometimes spiritually stunted disciples of later periods.