Jainachar Ki Bhumika - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jainachar ki Bhumika" by Dr. Mohanlal Mehta, focusing on the foundational principles of Jain conduct and thought:

Introduction: The Interconnectedness of Conduct and Thought

The text begins by establishing the fundamental link between conduct (Achara) and thought (Vichara). It argues that they are not only interconnected but also complementary and essential for the holistic development of an individual. True development, the author states, occurs when knowledge branches foster both intellectual growth and the momentum of ethical action. Without the support of thought, conduct is directionless, and without being translated into conduct, thought remains incomplete.

Ethics as the Foundation of Conduct

Conduct (Achara) is defined as the practical manifestation of thoughts and ideals. The bedrock of all conduct is ethics (Naitikata). Conduct not grounded in ethics cannot be considered ideal and is therefore to be rejected. The prestige of Dharma (righteousness, religion) in society stems from its foundation in ethics. Dharma originates from the inherent moral sentiment within humans. The higher the ideal of ethics, the more elevated the role of Dharma. Ethics transcends mere physical or worldly values, prioritizing spiritual and mental values. Broad and boundless ethics is more potent than narrow or limited ethics, leading to the true and complete development of personality.

Dharma and Spiritual Experience

The essence of Dharma lies in spiritual creation or experience. The expansion of this creation or experience is the development of Dharma. Conduct that aids in fulfilling this purpose is Dharma-based conduct. Such conduct is impossible without a sense of ethics. As ethical sentiments expand, Dharma develops, leading to spiritual growth, the ultimate state of which is Moksha or liberation. This principle is acknowledged by all self-reliant Indian philosophies.

Philosophy vs. Dharma: Logic vs. Faith

Philosophy is associated with thought and logic, while Dharma is linked to conduct and behavior. Philosophy is based on reasoning, whereas Dharma relies on faith. Conduct requires faith, while thought requires logic.

Two Perspectives on the Relationship Between Conduct and Thought:

Inseparable: This view posits that conduct and thought (or Dharma and philosophy) are identical. The truth of conduct is found in thought, and thought culminates in conduct.
Distinct but Interdependent: This view holds that conduct and thought are distinct. A rational thinker is not concerned with the behavior of a faithful practitioner, and vice-versa. However, from a neutral perspective, they are seen as two equally powerful, interdependent aspects of personality. Balanced development of both leads to pure personality development, a combination of knowledge and action essential for freedom from suffering.

The Indian Intellectual Tradition: A Synthesis

Indian thinkers consistently presented Dharma and philosophy together, recognizing their interdependence. They expounded on both metaphysical knowledge and the science of conduct, stating that action without knowledge is like a blind person's journey, and knowledge without action is like a crippled person's state. Just as both sound eyes and legs are necessary to reach a destination, so too are faultless knowledge and character essential for spiritual attainment.

Examples from Indian Traditions:

Mimamsa: The Purva Mimamsa branch is conduct-oriented, while the Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta) is thought-oriented.
Samkhya and Yoga: These are two limbs of the same tradition, representing thought and conduct respectively.
Buddhism: Hinayana is conduct-oriented, and Mahayana is thought-oriented.
Jainism: Jainism also gives equal importance to conduct and thought, with Ahimsa (non-violence) as its core conduct and Anekanta (multi-sidedness) as its core thought.

Vedic Perspective on Conduct:

The Vedic texts reflect a curiosity towards nature's workings, attributing them to various deities. People performed rituals and sacrifices (Yajna) to appease these deities for worldly prosperity and safety. Concepts of truth, charity, and faith were held in esteem, with deities personifying virtues and enforcing rules.

Upanishadic Perspective on Conduct:

The Upanishads shifted the focus from worldly happiness to Shreyas (spiritual welfare) as the ultimate goal, deeming Preyas (worldly pleasures) as inferior. The ultimate reality is the Paramatma Tattva (Supreme Soul), distinct from the body, mind, and senses. Ethical virtues like virtuous conduct, contentment, and truth are prescribed as essential for self-realization, leading to Shreyas.

Sutras, Smritis, and Dharmashastras:

These texts outline a structured life plan for humans, detailing duties and prohibitions. They emphasize the integration of basic pleasures with spiritual virtues. The concept of four Ashramas (stages of life) – Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest dweller), and Sanyasa (renunciate) – is presented, with each stage having specific duties. Similarly, the concept of four Varnas (social classes) with their respective duties is outlined, forming the Varnashrama Dharma.

Karma Mukti (Freedom from Karma):

The general basis of Indian ethics is the theory of Karma. Karma signifies the cause-and-effect relationship of actions driven by consciousness. Actions that help terminate this causal chain are commendable, while those that perpetuate it are to be avoided. The path of Yoga is a significant effort towards this goal, encompassing knowledge, devotion, and meditation. Even detached action is considered Yoga. Yoga is essential for self-control and the cessation of mental fluctuations. The joy experienced by a Yogi is self-reliant and not dependent on external objects. This state of permanent, self-dependent happiness leads to freedom from the cycle of karma-induced pleasure and pain, which is Moksha, liberation, or Nirvana. Achieving this requires continuous effort and adherence to numerous ethical rules and intellectual restraints.

Self-Development (Atmavikas):

Vedanta outlines seven stages of spiritual development, beginning with pure desire (Shubha Iccha), progressing through contemplation (Vicharna), detachment from senses (Tanu-manas), cessation of mental subjects (Satyapatti), indifference to external objects (Padartha-bhavani), and culminating in the union of the soul with Brahman (Turiyaga). Yoga's Ashtanga Yoga (Eight Limbs of Yoga) – Yama (restraints), Niyama (observances), Asana (postures), Pranayama (breath control), Pratyahara (sense withdrawal), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (absorption) – also leads to the final state of self-realization.

The Path of Karma (Karma Path):

While Mimamsa and Smritis emphasize ritualistic actions, Sankhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaisheshika, and Vedanta focus on self-purification. Buddhist philosophy categorizes actions into Vigyapti (conscious) and Avigyapti (unconscious). Each action has three phases: Prayoga (preparation), Karma Path (the act itself), and Prishtha (consequences/follow-up actions). The Buddhist understanding of these phases and their karmic implications forms the basis of Buddhist ethics.

Jain Conduct and Jain Thought:

Karma Theory: The foundation of Jain conduct (Achara) is the theory of Karma. Jain Ahimsa, Aparigraha (non-possession), and Anishwaravada (atheism) are all rooted in this theory.
Types of Karma: In Jainism, Karma is categorized into Dravyakarma (material karma – karmic particles attracted by the soul) and Bhavakarma (mental karma – the soul's passions like anger, pride, deceit, and greed). The interaction between soul and karmic matter is considered anadi (beginningless).
Karmic Bondage and Liberation: The soul is bound by karma from ancient times. Liberation (Moksha) is achieved when all accumulated karma is destroyed and no new karma is attracted. This liberated state of the soul, in its pure form, is considered the Jain concept of God.
Karma Theory is Not Fatalism: The Jain theory of Karma acknowledges that individuals must experience the fruits of their past actions, but it also allows for the possibility of mitigating or accelerating these consequences through subsequent efforts, self-will, and exertion. Individuals have a limited freedom to influence the accumulation of new karma.
Causes of Karmic Bondage: Yoga (activity of mind, speech, and body) and Kashaya (passions) are the two primary causes of karmic bondage. When the soul engages in activity (Yoga) fueled by passions (Kashaya), it attracts karmic particles (Asrava). The binding of these particles to the soul is Bandha. While all Yoga leads to bondage, Yoga coupled with Kashaya results in strong and lasting bondage.
Types of Karmic Bondage: The intensity and duration of karmic bondage are further categorized into Pradesh-bandha (accumulation of particles), Prakriti-bandha (nature of the karma), Sthiti-bandha (duration of experiencing the karma), and Anubhaga-bandha (intensity of the karmic fruit).
Karma Destruction (Nirjara): As karmas begin to yield their results, they are shed from the soul. This process is called Nirjara.
Eight Karmas: Jainism categorizes karma into eight types, which affect different aspects of the soul's nature and experiences:
- Ghati (Enclosing) Karmas: These directly obscure the soul's innate qualities.
  1. Jnana-avaraniya: Obscures knowledge.
  2. Darshana-avaraniya: Obscures perception.
  3. Mohaniya: Obscures the soul's natural happiness (causes delusion and attachment/aversion).
  4. Antaraya: Obscures the soul's inherent strength (vitality).
- Aghati (Non-Enclosing) Karmas: These relate to the physical body and do not directly harm the soul's essential qualities. 5. Vedaniya: Causes pleasant or unpleasant sensations. 6. Ayu: Determines the lifespan in different births. 7. Nama: Determines the physical form, species, and other characteristics. 8. Gotra: Determines one's social status.
Rebirth: The existence of karma necessitates the belief in rebirth. After death, the soul is reborn according to its Gati Nama Karma (karma determining the realm of rebirth) and is guided by Anupurvi Nama Karma (karma that directs the soul to its rebirth location). The subtle bodies (Taijasa and Karmana) accompany the soul during this transition.
Karma Liberation: The path to liberation involves two key actions: Samvara (stopping the influx of new karma) and Nirjara (destruction of existing karma). Samvara is achieved through Gupti (control of senses and mind), Samiti (careful conduct in walking, speaking, eating, etc.), Dharma (virtues like forgiveness, humility), Anupreksha (contemplation), Parishahajaya (endurance of hardships), Charitra (conduct), and Tapasya (austerities). Nirjara also results from austerities. The culmination of Samvara and Nirjara is Moksha.

The Theory of Self (Atmavada):

The theory of karma is inextricably linked to the theory of self. If the soul's separate existence is not acknowledged, the theory of karma becomes meaningless. Jain ethics upholds the theory of self, defining the soul (Atma) by its characteristic of Upayoga (consciousness or awareness). Consciousness is the property of the soul and absent in inanimate objects. Upayoga manifests as Jnana (knowledge) and Darshana (perception). Joy and strength are also properties of the soul, leading to the concept of the Ananta-Chatushtaya (four infinite qualities): infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss, and infinite strength. When the soul is freed from the obstructing karmas, these infinite qualities are fully manifested. A worldly soul is limited by its physical form and karmic substances, being subject to change, action, experience, and limited awareness.

Ahimsa and Aparigraha:

Ahimsa (Non-Violence): Ahimsa is the very soul of Jain conduct. Spiritual upliftment, which leads to freedom from karma, is achieved through non-violent conduct and thought. Jainism offers a profound and detailed exposition and practice of Ahimsa, perhaps unmatched in other traditions. The foundation of Ahimsa is Atma-samya (equanimity of the self), recognizing the fundamental equality of all souls, regardless of their form (earth-bodied, water-bodied, insect, animal, human). All beings desire life and experience pleasure and pain. Therefore, it is our duty not to harm any being, even in thought. Physical harm is a sin, but so is harm through thought or speech. True Ahimsa is the absence of causing distress to any being through mind, speech, or body.
Aparigraha (Non-Possession): Ahimsa is the nucleus around which other vows like Amrisha (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Amaithuna (celibacy/chastity), and Aparigraha develop. To prevent karmic bondage and destroy existing karma, Ahimsa and its related virtues are considered essential. These are beneficial for both the individual and society. Renouncing falsehood, unauthorized acquisition, and practicing restraint are crucial for individual and social progress. Without these, Ahimsa cannot flourish, and self-development is hindered. Aparigraha is especially critical. Possessiveness is a great enemy of self-development, blocking its path and leading to downfall. Possessiveness, characterized by attachment (Murcha), increases with greed and fuels violence, creating societal inequality and individual degradation. The vow of non-possession is essential for the proper observance of Ahimsa-based conduct.

Anekanta Drishti (The View of Multi-Sidedness):

Just as Jain thinkers prioritized Ahimsa in conduct, they emphasized Anekanta Drishti in thought. Anekanta means viewing an object from all its multifaceted perspectives. Objects possess numerous qualities. Anekanta involves treating all these qualities equally without clinging to a single perspective (Ekanta-drishti).

Syadvada: To describe an object with multiple qualities, the word 'Syat' is used, meaning "in some way" or "from a particular perspective." This acknowledges that an object's infinite qualities are understood from different viewpoints, leading to a difference in perspective. This perspective-based relativism is called Syadvada. Since Syadvada describes the multi-faceted nature of objects, it is also known as Anekantavada. Syadvada and Anekantavada are thus two names for Jain philosophy's relative perspective.
Two Forms of Anekantavada:
- Sakala-desha: This involves making a statement about an object by equating one of its qualities with all its other qualities, thus referring to the whole object. For example, stating "'Syat astyeva sarvam' (In some way, everything exists)" implies that all other qualities, besides existence, are inseparable from existence from a certain perspective.
- Vikala-desha: This focuses on a single quality while neglecting others. While other qualities are not denied, they are disregarded due to lack of relevance for the specific statement. This is called Vikala-desha because it describes an incomplete aspect of the object.

In conclusion, the grand edifice of Jain conduct is built upon the twin pillars of Ahimsa and Anekantavada.