Jaina Philosophy Of Language

This document provides a comprehensive summary of "Jaina Philosophy of Language" by Prof. Sagarmal Jain, translated by Prof. Surendra Verma and edited by Dr. Shriprakash Pandey.

Overall Scope:

The book is presented as a pioneering work that delves into the Jaina philosophical understanding of language. It aims to analyze the fundamental problems of philosophical semantics using an analytical method, offering a lucid and insightful presentation of Jaina linguistic philosophy. The work is recognized for its potential value to researchers and linguists.

Key Themes and Chapters:

The book is structured into seven chapters, each addressing specific aspects of Jaina philosophy of language:

• Chapter 1: Introduction:

  • Explores the innate human tendency for self-expression and communication.
  • Defines language as a vital means of self-expression, distinguishing between human word-oriented language and other forms of expression.
  • Delineates the fields of linguistics and philosophy of language, highlighting their distinct focuses.
  • Traces the development of the philosophy of language in Western thought, from metaphysics in ancient times to linguistic analysis in the 20th century.
  • Discusses the parallel development of the philosophy of language in Indian thought, starting with metaphysical and epistemological concerns, and later focusing on language itself.
  • Identifies key problems within Jaina philosophy of language, such as the origin, nature, and meaning of language.
  • Introduces the concept of Vibhajyavāda (Analytic method) as an early precursor to contemporary language analysis, prevalent in both Jaina and Buddhist traditions.
  • Details a significant linguistic controversy in the early Jaina tradition regarding the interpretation of grammatical tenses (kriyamāņa kṛta), highlighting the importance of context and usage in language.

• Chapter 2: Language and Script:

  • Addresses the Jaina account of the origin of language, suggesting it is intrinsically linked to the existence of living beings and is therefore eternal, though individual languages change over time.
  • Differentiates between Akṣarātmaka-bhāṣā (alphabetical language), primarily associated with humans, and Anakṣarātmaka Bhāṣā (non-alphabetical language) used by other living beings and infants.
  • Explores the relationship between thought and language, linking it to Jaina concepts of sensory (mati-jñāna) and scriptural (śruta-jñāna) knowledge.
  • Discusses various types of language and letters, including their classification into written (drśya/saṁjñā-kṣara), spoken (śravya/vyañjana-kṣara), and cognitive (labdhyākṣara) forms.
  • Details the Jaina understanding of vowels and consonants and touches upon the concept of a 'matrix of letters.'
  • Provides a historical overview of the development of scripts, referencing Jaina texts like Samavāyānga and Prajñāpanā, and their relation to the Brāhmī script.

• Chapter 3: Jaina Philosophy of Word:

  • Examines the fundamental nature of words, classifying them as either Prāyogika (caused by efforts) or Vaisrasika (caused naturally).
  • Defines a "word" in the Jaina context as an alphabetical, meaningful sound symbol.
  • Discusses the process of comprehending meaning (artha-bodha) through various senses and the role of the mind.
  • Explains the Jaina view of words as material constructs (pudgala-paryāya) but clarifies that this applies to the sound aspect, not the meaning.
  • Analyzes the theory of the "molecular structure of the word" and addresses criticisms from Nyāya and Grammarian schools.
  • Discusses the transient existence of words, contrasting it with the eternal view of Mimāṁsakas and Grammarians.
  • Explores how words acquire meaning through natural ability, convention (samketa), and usage (abhisamaya).
  • Details the Jaina method of naming, outlining ten types of names (e.g., Ekavidha-nāma, Dvividha-nāma).
  • Addresses the problem of determining the meaning of poly-semantic words, emphasizing the role of speaker's intention and context (Naya).
  • Debates whether the denotation of a word is universal or particular, with Jainas proposing a view of the particular qualified by the universal.
  • Examines the relation between a word and its denotation, positing a vācya-vācaka (expressed-expressive) relation that is neither identical nor entirely different.
  • Critically evaluates Sphoṭavāda (the theory of a meaning-bearing unit), refuting it by arguing that words themselves, in combination and context, convey meaning without the need for an abstract sphota.
  • Refutes the Buddhist theory of Apohavāda (theory of exclusion), arguing that language signifies positive realities and that meaning is not solely based on negation.
  • Discusses the Image theory (Ākṛtivāda), presenting it as a Jaina synthesis of the object-based and mental-image-based theories of meaning, where meaning is understood as an image formed in consciousness based on actual objects.
  • Distinguishes between "words" and "terms," with terms being words used within a sentence and having their meaning relative to it.

• Chapter 4: The Jaina Philosophy of Sentence:

  • Defines a sentence as an absolute collection of relative terms with mutual expectancy, where terms depend on each other and the sentence itself for complete meaning.
  • Reviews and critiques various Indian philosophical views on the nature of a sentence, including:
    • The verb (kriyāpada) as the crux.
    • The sentence as a term-complex (sanghāta).
    • The sentence as a common-factor (jāti).
    • The sentence as an indivisible unit.
    • Successivism (kramavāda).
    • The comprehension theory of meaning.
    • The first term (prathama-pada) as a sentence.
    • The term with mutual expectancy (sākāṁkşa-pada) as a sentence.
  • Discusses two primary theories of sentence meaning in Indian philosophy:
    • Abhihitānvayavāda (Denotation-relative theory): Argues that individual word meanings are primary, and sentence meaning arises from their relation.
    • Anvitābhidhānavāda (Theory of concomitant expression): Posits that words in a sentence inherently denote related meanings, and sentence meaning is directly comprehended.
  • Offers a Jaina critique of both Mimāṁsā theories, suggesting they are one-sided. Jainas advocate a synthesis where both terms and the sentence are mutually related and essential for meaning.

• Chapter 5: Theories for the Determination of Meaning: Naya & Nikṣepa:

  • Introduces the Jaina theories of Naya (viewpoint) and Nikṣepa (positing) as crucial for understanding the speaker's intention and determining the correct meaning of words and sentences.
  • Defines Naya as the speaker's intention and a method for analyzing meaning based on different linguistic expressions.
  • Outlines seven types of Naya:
    • Artha-naya (concerned with the object denoted): Naigama, Saṁgraha, Vyavahāra, Ṛjusūtra.
    • Śabda-naya (concerned with the meaning conveyed by words): Śabda, Samabhirūḍha, Evambhūta.
  • Explains the function of Nikṣepa in clarifying word meanings through four categories: Nāma (Name), Sthāpanā (Projection/Symbol), Dravya (Substance/Past/Future State), and Bhāva (Attribute/Present State). These theories emphasize context and intent in language interpretation.

• Chapter 6: Capability of Expression in Language:

  • Addresses the philosophical question of whether language and word-symbols can perfectly express their objects or meanings.
  • Presents the Jaina view that words are indicative but not identical to their objects, representing them with limited and relative expressive power.
  • Discusses the limitations of language, where the infinite aspects of reality and experience are often beyond the finite vocabulary of words.
  • Explores the concept of the inexpressibility of reality, referencing Vedic and Upanishadic thought, and contrasting it with the Jaina notion of relative expressibility.
  • Analyzes different interpretations of "indescribability," aligning the Jaina perspective with the idea of partial expressibility due to the limitations of words.
  • Highlights the Jaina contribution to understanding language's prescriptive nature, which modern philosophers also identify as largely unverifiable.

• Chapter 7: Language and Truth:

  • Examines the validity of knowledge and statements, discussing correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic theories.
  • Presents the Jaina view that validity can be determined both intrinsically (svataḥ) and extrinsically (parataḥ), with a focus on the knowable object.
  • Discusses the criterion of truth for statements, emphasizing correspondence with facts, but acknowledging the limitations of language and the potential for partial truth.
  • Categorizes language into "developed" (verifiable) and "undeveloped" (non-verifiable) forms, and further subdivides them into True (Satya), False (Asatya), True-False (Satya-mṛṣā), and Neither True nor False (Asatya-amṛṣā).
  • Details various types of "truth" (e.g., Janapada-satya, Sammata-satya, Sthāpanā-satya) and "untruth" (e.g., Alika, Avalopa, Viparita, Ekānta) as recognized in Jaina tradition, highlighting the pragmatic and contextual nature of much linguistic expression.
  • Explains "True-False Statements" as those with estimations, probabilities, or mixed qualities, and "Neither True nor False Statements" as those that are prescriptive, interrogative, or express doubt, aligning with modern linguistic analysis.
  • Concludes that linguistic expressions are generally relative in truth, dependent on context, and advocates for the Jaina principles of Syādvāda and Vibhajyavāda to ensure clarity and avoid contradiction in communication.

Key Jaina Contributions:

• Vibhajyavāda: The analytical method of understanding and responding to questions by considering various aspects, seen as a precursor to modern linguistic analysis.
• Anekāntavāda (Non-absolutism): Underpins the Jaina approach to language, acknowledging multiple perspectives and the relative nature of truth.
• Naya and Nikṣepa: Theories that provide a framework for understanding the speaker's intention and the context-dependent meaning of words and sentences.
• Critique of Sphoṭavāda and Apohavāda: Jainas offer reasoned refutations of these prominent theories from other Indian philosophical schools.
• Synthesis of Theories: The book emphasizes the Jaina ability to synthesize diverse philosophical viewpoints, particularly in their understanding of word and sentence meaning.
• Emphasis on Meaning over Form: A consistent thread throughout the work is the Jaina focus on conveying accurate meaning, rather than merely adhering to grammatical form.
• Relativity of Language and Truth: A core tenet is that linguistic expressions and their truth-values are often relative to context, intention, and usage.

In essence, "Jaina Philosophy of Language" by Prof. Sagarmal Jain offers a deep and nuanced exploration of how Jainism understands the complex relationship between language, meaning, and reality, presenting a rich philosophical tradition that resonates with contemporary concerns in the philosophy of language.