Jaina Philosophy Historical Outline

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Jain Philosophy Historical Outline" by Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya, based on the provided table of contents and preface:

Overall Scope and Approach:

"Jain Philosophy Historical Outline" by Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya aims to provide a historical understanding of Jain philosophy, tracing its development from its origins to its sophisticated stages, and analyzing its functional role within the broader landscape of Indian philosophical thought. The author emphasizes a historical and comparative approach, grounding the understanding of Jainism in its socio-economic and intellectual context, and drawing connections and distinctions with other Indian philosophical traditions like Vedic, Buddhist, Sāmkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṁsā, Nyāya-Vaiśeśika, Vedānta, Ājīvikism, and Materialism (Cārvāka). The book seeks to present Jain philosophy without requiring prior acquaintance with the subject, deliberately avoiding overly pedantic terminology.

Key Themes and Sections:

The book is structured into four main parts:

Part One: Introduction

• The Jains as they are: This section describes the current state of the Jain community in India, including their population distribution, sectarian divisions (Digambara and Svetambara and their sub-sects), social structures (like the caste system, though theoretically opposed by Jainism), attitudes towards women, religious practices (worship, festivals, pilgrimage), ethical disciplines (vows for monks and laypeople), and contributions to art, literature, and social welfare. It also touches upon the historical struggles and reasons for Jainism's survival.
• Researches on Jainism: This section chronicles the history of the academic study of Jainism, highlighting the contributions of European and Indian scholars from the early surveys and publications of European Indologists to the critical editions and analyses of Jain texts by figures like Weber, Bühler, Jacobi, and Hoernle. It discusses the evolution of understanding Jainism, particularly the establishment of its independence from Buddhism, and the crucial role of manuscript collections and scholarly publications.
• Literary Sources: This section details the vast corpus of Jain literature, including the canonical scriptures (Angas, Upangas, Painnas, Cheyasuttas, Mulasuttas) of both Svetambara and Digambara traditions, along with their commentaries (Niryuktis, Bhasyas, Churnis, Tīkās). It also mentions non-Jain sources like Buddhist and Brahmanical texts that shed light on Jain history and doctrines. The linguistic evolution of these texts from Ardhamāgadhi Prakrit to Sanskrit and regional languages is noted.
• Archaeological Sources: Architecture and Sculpture: This part explores the material evidence of Jainism through its art, sculptures, and monuments. It traces the development of Jain art from early Mauryan and Kushāņa periods through the Gupta age and into the medieval period, highlighting significant sites and artistic styles, including cave temples, freestanding temples, and colossal sculptures, particularly in regions like Mathura, Orissa, Ellora, and South India.
• Archaeological Sources: The Epigraphs: This section focuses on inscriptions as a crucial source for understanding Jainism's history, patronage, and social organization. It discusses inscriptions from the Ashokan period, the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, Mathura inscriptions, South Indian inscriptions detailing patronage by dynasties like the Gangas, Kadambas, and Rashtrakutas, and epigraphs that shed light on Jain monastic orders (ganas, samghas, sākhās, gacchas) and prominent teachers.
• Pārsva and Mahāvīra: This section presents a historical outline of the lives and teachings of the last two Tirthamkaras, Pārsva and Mahāvīra. It discusses the historical evidence for Pārsva's existence, his life, doctrines (four vows), and influence on Mahāvīra. It then details Mahāvīra's life, birth, names, relationship with Gosāla, asceticism, enlightenment, travels, and passing, addressing both Digambara and Svetambara traditions.
• Ecclesiastical History: This part outlines the organizational history of the Jain church after Mahāvīra, discussing the succession of Ganadharas, the role of patriarchs, the schism between Svetāmbaras and Digambaras, and the significance of the Second Council at Valabhi in shaping the canon.

Part Two: The Incipient Stage

• The Prehistory of Jainism: This section explores the origins of Jainism, discussing the tradition of 24 Tirthamkaras, the potential for a historical basis for earlier teachers, and the influence of pre-Vedic and non-Vedic ideas, including yogic practices and the worship of deities like Yakshas, Rakshas, and Mother Goddesses, which were revived by Buddhism and Jainism.
• The Historical Background: This part delves into the socio-economic conditions of ancient India that contributed to the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. It examines the transition from food-gathering economies to agriculture, the urban revolution, the rise of class society and state power, the conflicts between Vedic and non-Vedic traditions, and the disintegration of tribal systems. It highlights how the Buddha and Mahāvīra responded to the prevailing social transformation, bloodshed, and moral crisis.
• Material Basis of the Great Intellectual Movement: This section argues that the philosophical movements of the Buddha, Mahāvīra, and their contemporaries were a response to the same socio-political and economic transformations occurring in Eastern India. It discusses the rise of states, the annihilation of tribal settlements, and the accumulation of social surplus as factors influencing the intellectual climate.
• The Conflicts in the History of Indian Thought: This part identifies the key conflicts that shaped Indian philosophy, including those between Vedic and non-Vedic elements, tribal disintegration and state power, and priestly versus royal power. It analyzes how these conflicts influenced the development of monotheism and the concept of kingship, and how Buddhism and Jainism emerged as responses to these societal shifts.
• Contemporary Philosophical Schools: This section surveys the diverse philosophical schools present during the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra, as documented in Buddhist and Jain texts. It details categories like Eternalists (Sassatavada), Partial Eternalists, Limitists/Unlimitists, Evasive Disputants (corresponding to Jain Ajñānavāda), Fortuitous Originists (corresponding to Materialists/Cārvākas), Annihilationists (Ucchedavāda), and those who believe in attaining Nibbāna in one life.
• Purana Kassapa, Pakudha Kaccayana, Makkhali Gosala, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, Ajita Kesakambalin: These sections provide biographical sketches and philosophical analyses of key heterodox thinkers contemporary to Mahāvīra, outlining their doctrines, often highlighting their fatalistic, materialistic, or agnostic views, and connecting their philosophies to their social experiences and the broader intellectual currents of the age. The relationship between Mahāvīra and Gosāla, and the potential influence of Ājīvikism on Jainism, are discussed.
• Social Experiences of Mahāvīra: This section specifically examines Mahāvīra's engagement with the social injustices of his time, as reflected in Jain scriptures. It highlights his response to wealth accumulation, private property, and the inherent conflicts within class society, as exemplified in dialogues like the one between Sakra and Nami.
• The Social Basis of Jain Ethics: This part connects Jain ethics, particularly the vows (Mahavratas and Anuvratas), to the socio-economic context. It argues that Jainism sought to provide an ideal substitute for the vanished tribal collective through its monastic order (Samgha) and promoted moral values like non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possession, which were either continuations of tribal values or adaptations to the emerging class society.

Part Three: The Sophisticated Stage

• Jainism and Indian Philosophical Tradition: This section begins the comparative study, analyzing how early Jain texts (Sūyagada) interacted with and critiqued contemporary philosophical schools like Kriyāvāda, Akriyāvāda, Ajñānavāda, Vinayavāda, and Materialism. It notes that while critiquing these schools, Jainism also drew upon them, particularly in logic and ethics. It also discusses the Jain engagement with Brahmanical systems like Sāmkhya, Vedānta, and Vaiśeșika, and Buddhist schools.
• Jain Atheism: This section extensively discusses Jainism's rejection of a creator God, contrasting it with the theistic arguments of Nyāya-Vaiśeșika and Vedānta. It traces the development of atheistic ideas in India and highlights the Jain logical refutations of theistic proofs, particularly focusing on the meticulous analysis by Gunaratna.
• Jain Logic: This part delves into the sophisticated development of Jain logic, tracing its evolution from early writers like Bhadrabāhu and Umāsvāti to later logicians like Siddhasena Divākara, Akalanka, Māņikya Nandi, and Gunaratna. Key concepts like Naya (standpoints), Syādvāda (doctrine of conditional propositions), Pramāņa (means of valid knowledge), Pratyakṣa (direct perception), Parokṣa (indirect knowledge), and the structure of inference (syllogism) are explained. The Jain emphasis on Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism) as a unifying principle is highlighted.
• Scientific Enquiries: Cosmology, Classification of Jiva, Biology, Physiology, etc., Diseases and Medicines, Astronomy, Atomism: This substantial portion of Part Three details Jainism's contributions to various scientific fields. It describes their cosmology (structure of the universe), detailed classification of living beings based on senses, biological and physiological understandings (including embryology, anatomy, and bodily functions), medical classifications, astronomical theories (sun, moon, stars, planets), and their sophisticated theory of atomism, comparing it with other Indian systems, particularly Nyāya-Vaiśeșika. This section emphasizes the early scientific spirit within Jainism, even as it acknowledges the later infiltration of dogmatic principles.
• The Unfounded Speculations and their Ethical Considerations: This section critiques the later development of Jainism, where speculative and imaginative elements, particularly the inclusion of numerous deities and the extensive elaboration of the doctrine of Karma, overshadowed the earlier scientific and philosophical rigor. It notes that the doctrine of Karma became a central driving force, explaining events from celestial movements to individual suffering and virtue.
• The Nine Fundamentals and the Doctrine of Karma: This section elaborates on the nine fundamental truths (navatattva) of Jainism, with a particular focus on the doctrine of Karma. It explains Jiva, Ajiva, Punya, Pāpa, Āśrava (influx of Karma), Saṁvara (stoppage of influx), Bandha (bondage), Nirjarā (shedding of Karma), and Mokṣa (liberation). It highlights Jainism's unique materialistic conception of Karma and the ethical framework built around these principles.
• Classification of Karma and the Gunasthānas: This section further details the classification of Karma into ghātin and aghātin types, and the fourteen stages of spiritual progress (Guņasthānas) towards liberation, illustrating the step-by-step process of overcoming karmic bondage.
• A Review of the Jain Metaphysics: This concluding section of Part Three synthesizes the preceding discussions, characterizing Jain metaphysics as a blend of scientific notions and ethico-religious ideals. It reiterates Jainism's realism, pluralism, atheism, and its unique doctrine of Anekāntavāda. It summarizes the concepts of Dravya (substance) and Paryāya (mode) and their inseparable yet distinct relationship, and the role of Karma in the soul's embodiment and eventual liberation.
• Theory of Knowledge, Psychological Ingredients, The Non-Absolutist Standpoint: These sections further elaborate on Jain epistemology, psychology, and its core logical principle of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda). It discusses different types of knowledge (Mati, Śruti, Avadhi, Manaḥparyāya, Kevala), the role of senses and mind, the concept of memory and recognition as valid means of knowledge, and the practical implications of the Syādvāda doctrine in understanding reality from multiple perspectives.

Part Four: A Comparative Study This part systematically compares Jainism with other major Indian philosophical and religious traditions, analyzing shared origins, points of divergence, and influences:

• Jainism and Vedic Tradition: Discusses Jainism's anti-Vedic stance, rejection of sacrifices and Brahmanical supremacy, but also acknowledges potential Upanishadic influences on concepts like Karma, transmigration, and liberation.
• Jainism and Buddhism: Highlights their common anti-Vedic basis, rejection of a creator God, emphasis on ethics, and opposition to animal sacrifice. It details their differences in epistemology (particularly perception), metaphysics (momentariness vs. relative permanence), and the understanding of the soul and liberation.
• Jainism and Ājīvikism: Explores the historical connections and potential influences between early Jainism and Gosāla's Ājīvikism, including shared concepts like Niyati (fate), classifications of mankind (Abhijāti, Leśyā), and ethical rules, while also noting fundamental differences in their core doctrines.
• Jainism and Materialism (Cārvāka): Examines the materialist critique of Jainism's theory of knowledge and contrasts the Carvaka denial of the soul with the Jain affirmation of it. It also touches upon shared atheistic tendencies.
• Jainism and Sāmkhya: Compares their dualistic (Jiva/Ajiva vs. Purușa/Prakṛti) and pluralistic (Jain souls) or dualistic (Samkhya souls) metaphysical frameworks, their theories of causation (Pariņāmavāda), their views on knowledge, and their concepts of liberation, acknowledging possible early influences of Samkhya on Jainism.
• Jainism and Yoga: Discusses the shared emphasis on yogic practices, control of senses and passions, and the concept of yogic perception, noting the integration of yogic elements within Jain asceticism and philosophy.
• Jainism and Mīmāmsā: Compares their atheistic stance, emphasis on rituals (though differently understood), theories of knowledge, and the reality of the perceived world. It highlights differences in their acceptance of transcendental perception and the nature of liberation.
• Jainism and Nyāya-Vaiseșika: Details the Jain refutation of Nyāya-Vaiśeșika theism and their critical engagement with its logic. It also points out the influence of Jain atomism on Nyāya-Vaiśeșika atomism and the shared adoption of certain logical techniques and fallacies.
• Jainism and Vedānta: Characterizes Jainism as pluralistic realism and Vedānta as monistic idealism, highlighting their fundamental opposition. It discusses their contrasting views on the nature of reality, knowledge, the self, and the world, and examines criticisms leveled by Sankara and Ramanuja against Jain doctrines.
• A Subjectwise Comparative Study of the Systems: This concluding section provides an overarching comparative analysis, categorizing systems as idealistic and non-idealistic, theistic and atheistic. It reviews their differing views on permanence vs. change, the nature of the self, theories of knowledge, causation (Arambhavāda, Pariņāmavāda, Vivartavāda, Pratītya-samutpāda-vāda), and the role of consciousness and liberation, ultimately underscoring the contradictions and interactions that drove the development of Indian philosophy.

In essence, Bhattacharyya's work offers a scholarly journey through the historical evolution of Jain philosophy, placing it within its broader cultural and intellectual context, and meticulously analyzing its doctrines, logic, scientific inquiries, and comparative relationships with other Indian traditions.