Jaina Literature Form Earliest Time To Century 10th AD

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Overview of Early Jain Literature (Earliest Times to c. 3rd AD)

The early period of Jain literature, from its inception to approximately the 3rd century AD, is primarily characterized by its canonical literature, known as the Agamas. These texts were predominantly composed in Prākṛta, a group of related dialects, with Pāli being a derivative of Prākṛta. Sanskrit was also used, but often as a medium for commentaries or based on existing Prākṛta works. The canonical literature itself is believed to have been composed between approximately the 5th century BC and the 4th-5th century AD. The Nandisūtra (c. 5th AD) is noted as the first work to list the canonical literature.

The Jain Canon:

The Jain canon is broadly categorized into:

• Angas: The twelve primary Angas are listed, including Ācārānga, Sūtrakṛtāṅga, Sthānāṅga, Samavāyāṅga, Vyākhyāprajñapti (Bhagavati), Jñātādharmakathā, Upāsakadāśaṅga, Antakṛddaśāṅga, Anuttaraupapātikadaśāṅga, Praśnavyākaraṇa, Vipākasūtra, and Dṛṣṭivāda.
• Angasūtra (Avaśyaka): This category includes works like Sāmāyika, Caturviṁśatistava, Vandana, Pratikramaṇa, Kāyotsarga, and Pratyākhyāna.
• Angabāhya (Other than Avaśyaka): This vast category includes numerous works like Kalika, Uttarādhyayana, Daśāśrutaskandha, Kalpa, Vyavahāra, Niśitha, Mahāniśitha, Rṣibhāṣita, Jambūdvīpaprajñapti, Sūryaprajñapti, Candraprajñapti, and many others, covering cosmology, geography, ethics, and more.

Loss of Canonical Works:

It's noted that not all of these canonical works are available today. The 7th chapter of Ācārāṅga (likely dealing with strict monastic conduct) and a significant portion of Dṛṣṭivāda (believed to contain philosophical doctrines, including those of the Pārśva tradition) are considered lost. The prohibition of writing on palm leaves due to the principle of non-violence is cited as a reason for the loss and incomplete preservation of some texts. The Dṛṣṭivāda's loss is also attributed to its content being less aligned with Mahāvira's tradition and more focused on philosophical debates with other schools.

Key Early Canonical Works and Their Chronology:

• Ācārāṅga: Considered the oldest, with the first part dating to c. 5th-4th BC, containing Mahāvīra's preachings on non-violence and monastic conduct. The second part, Āyāracūla, is an appendix.
• Sūtrakṛtāṅga: Dating to c. 4th-3rd BC, it presents moral preachings and discusses contemporary philosophical views.
• Isibhāsiyāim (Rṣibhāṣitam): A crucial work of early Jain literature (c. 4th-3rd BC), reflecting tolerance by including preachings from various thinkers, including Upanishadic and Buddhist figures.
• Uttarādhyayana: Comprising 36 chapters, it covers religious preachings and metaphysical doctrines.
• Daśavaikālika: Composed by Ārya Sayyambhava (c. 5th-4th BC), it details monastic conduct and spiritual discourses.
• Niśitha, Daśāśrutaskandha, Vyavahāra, Kalpa: Composed by Ārya Bhadrabāhu (c. 3rd BC), these deal with conduct, transgressions, and atonements.
• Sthānārga and Samavāyāṅga: Encyclopedic works on early Jain thoughts and beliefs, providing information about later developments (c. 3rd-4th AD).
• Bhagavati (Vyākhyāprajñapti): A voluminous work dealing with various aspects of Jain philosophy, likely composed in phases.
• Jñātādharmakathā: Contains stories preached by Mahāvīra.
• Upāsakadāśaṅga: The first work focusing on the conduct of lay devotees (Śrāvakas).
• Antakṛddaśāṅga: Deals with the lives of those attaining salvation in their last moments.
• Anuttaraupapātikadaśāṅga: Focuses on individuals who attained a celestial state.
• Praśnavyākaraṇadaśā: Details the fruits of merit and demerits.
• Vipākaśāstra: Also deals with the results of karma.

Secondary Canons (Upānga):

The text lists several Upānga works, including Aupapātika, Rājapraśniya, Jivābhigama, Prajñāpanā (attributed to Ārya Śyāma, c. 1st AD), Jambūdvīpaprajñapti, Sūryaprajñapti, and Candraprajñapti (c. 2nd-1st BC), which focus on cosmology and astronomy.

Niryuktis, Bhāṣyas, and Cūrṇis (c. 3rd-10th AD):

This period saw the final editing and composition of many Agamas. The evolution of Jain thought and practice is evident through the literature produced:

• Niryuktis (c. 3rd-4th AD): These are early commentaries in Prākṛta verses that explain technical terms and the subject matter of Agamas. Arya Bhadra (c. 2nd-3rd AD) is likely the author of most.
• Bhāṣyas (c. 5th-6th AD): More exhaustive and elaborate than Niryuktis, these Prakṛta verse commentaries delve into philosophy and monastic conduct. Notable authors include Jinabhadragaṇi (author of Viśeṣāvaśyakabhāṣya) and Sanghadāsagaṇi (author of Bṛhatkalpa, Vyavahāra, and Niśitha bhāṣyā).
• Cūrṇis (c. 7th AD): Written in prose mixed with Sanskrit and Prākṛta, these commentaries are vital for understanding social and cultural heritage. Jinadāsagaṇi Mahattara is credited with most of these, including commentaries on Āvaśyaka, Daśavaikālika, Uttarādhyayana, etc.

Sanskrit Commentaries (Vṛttis/Vivaraṇas):

Sanskrit commentaries emerged from the 8th century AD onwards. Key figures include:

• Haribhadrasūri (mid-8th AD): The earliest Sanskrit commentator, writing on numerous Agamas.
• Śilāṅkacārya (9th AD): Wrote commentaries on Ācārāṅga and Sūtrakṛtāṅga.
• Abhayadevasūri (late 10th-11th AD): Known as the Navārgi-vrttikāra for commenting on nine Angas.
• Śāntisūri (10th-11th AD): Commented on Uttarādhyayana.

Digambara Tradition:

In the Digambara tradition, Kaṣāyapāhuḍa and Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama are considered equivalent to Agamas. Commentaries like Virasena's Jayadhavalā and Dhavalā are significant.

Important Philosophical Works (c. 3rd-10th AD):

This period is considered the "Age of Critical Presentation of Anekāntavāda."

• Tattvārthasūtra by Umāsvāti (c. 3rd AD): The first systematic work on Jaina philosophy, written in Sanskrit and respected by both sects. It covers metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
• Sanmatitarka by Siddhasena Divākara (c. 4th AD): Critically explains concepts like dravya, guna, and paryāya based on Naya, Nikṣepa, and Anekāntavāda.
• Nyāyāvatāra by Siddhasena: The first work on Jaina logic.
• Āptamimāṁsā by Samantabhadra (c. 5th AD): A scholarly presentation of Jainism, critically evaluating other schools.
• Dvādaśāranayacakra by Mallavādi (c. 6th AD): Aims to establish Anekāntavāda by identifying inconsistencies in other philosophies.
• Commentaries on Tattvārthasūtra: Sarvārthasiddhi by Pujyapada Devanandi (early 6th AD) in Digambara tradition, and commentaries by Siddhasenagaṇi and Haribhadra in Svetambara tradition.
• Works on Karma Theory: Mahākarma-prakṛti-prābhṛta (Ṣaṭkhaṇḍaśāstra) by Puspadanta Bhūtabali (c. 4th AD), Kaṣāyaprābhṛta by Guṇadhara (c. 4th AD), and later commentaries.
• Spiritualistic Treatises: Works by Kundakunda (c. 6th AD), such as Samayasāra and Pravacanasāra, contributed significantly to Jaina spirituality.

Works on Religious Practices and Ethics:

This category includes hymns, works on worship and rituals, religious preachings, Jaina Sadhana and Yoga, and codes of conduct.

• Hymns: Dvātrimsikās by Siddhasena Divākara and Svayambhūstotra by Samantabhadra.
• Worship and Rituals: Works like Pajaprakaraṇa by Umasvati (unavailable) and Caityavandana by Haribhadra.
• Religious Preachings: Āṣṭapahuda by Kundakunda, Iṣṭopadeśa by Pujyapada Devanandi, and Upadeśamālā.
• Jaina Sadhana and Yoga: Praśamaratiprakaraṇa by Umasvati, Samādhitantra by Pujyapada Devanandi, and numerous works on Yoga by Haribhadra.
• Code of Conduct: Mūlācāra and Bhagavatī Ārādhanā in Digambara tradition, and Ratnākaraṇḍaśrāvaka-cāra by Samantabhadra. In Svetambara tradition, Śrāvaka-prajñāpti by Haribhadra and Titakalpa by Jinabhadra are noted.

Jaina Narrative Literature (c. 3rd-10th AD):

Narrative literature was primarily for religious exhortation.

• Biographies of 63 Illustrious Personalities: Caupannamahāpuruṣacariyam by Śīlāṅkacārya (c. 9th AD) and Mahāpurāṇa (Trisasticaritra) by Jinasena and Guṇabhadra (c. 9th AD).
• Life Stories: Works on the lives of Rama and Kṛṣṇa are prominent.
• Religious Tales in Romantic Form: Vasudevahiṇḍi by Sanghadasagani (c. 6th AD) and Samarāiccakahā by Haribhadra.
• Semi-historical Prabandhas: Generally composed after the 12th century AD.
• Compilation of Stories (Kathākośa): Works like Dharmopadeśamālā by Jaisimhasuri (867 AD) and Brhatkathākośa by Hariṣeṇa (931 AD).

Secular Literature of Jainas:

Jaina scholars also produced secular literature covering various subjects to develop personality and preserve cultural heritage.

• Astronomy and Geography: Lokavibhāga by Sarvanandi (c. 6th AD) and Tiloyapaṇṇatti by Yati-vṛṣabha.
• Grammar: Jainendra Vyākaraṇa by Indranandi (c. 6th AD), Śakatāyana Vyākaraṇa by Palyakirti Śakatāyana (c. 9th AD), and Svayambhū Vyākaraṇa by Tribhuvana Svayambhu (c. 8th AD).
• Medicine: Vaidyaśāstra by Pujyapada Devanandi (unavailable).
• Astrology: Jyotiṣakaraṇḍaka.

Conclusion:

The literary evolution of Jainism from the 3rd century BC to the 10th century AD demonstrates the versatility of Jaina ācāryas, who contributed extensively to philosophical, religious, ethical, narrative, and secular literature. While much of the early canonical literature was composed in Prākṛta, later periods saw a significant increase in Sanskrit works, including extensive commentaries. The literature reflects the development of Jaina thought, practices, and cultural engagement with the broader Indian intellectual landscape.