Jain Vidyache Vividh Aayam Part 03

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, broken down by section as presented in the document:

Book Title: Jain Vidyache Vividh Aayam Part 03 (Various Dimensions of Jainology, Part 03) Author: Dr. Nalini Joshi Publisher: Nalini Joshi Publication Date: August 2011

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Section 12: Jain Historical Literature

This section, based on a lecture delivered at Shivaji University in March 2008, discusses the historical dimension of Jainism through its literature.

• Key Pillars of Jainology: Jain history and tradition, Jain literature, Jain philosophy, and Jain art are identified as the four main pillars. Comparative studies with other disciplines are also emerging as a new area.

• Sources of Historical Evidence: While archaeological evidence (inscriptions, temples, sculptures, copper plates, etc.) is considered the most authentic, Jain literature also provides crucial historical information.

• Most Important Historical Literature:

  • Pattavalis: These are genealogical accounts of religious leaders and traditions. The Sthiravali in the Paryushanakalpa or Kalpasutra in Ardhamagadhi is the most ancient. Hemachandra's 12th-century Sanskrit work, Parishishtaparva, significantly complemented these. Pattavalis of various Gachhas (sects) like Anchalagachha, Khartaragachha, and Tapagachha shed light on Jain history.
  • Prashastis: Prefaces to Jain texts also contain historical information.
  • Prabandhas (Biographical Narratives): These are highlighted as a particularly important genre, with Jain acharyas leading in their composition.
    • Shatrunjayamaahatmyam by Dhaneeshwarsuri (13th century): Focuses on the Shatrunjay pilgrimage, its origins, and legends.
    • Prabhavakcharita by Prabhachandra (13th century): Chronicles the lives of influential figures from Vajraswami to Hemachandrasuri, incorporating Prakrit and Apabhramsa poetry.
    • Prabandhachintamani by Merutunga (14th century): A well-structured work in Sanskrit, detailing stories of rulers and influential individuals, including acharyas, lay followers, and others.
    • Prabandhakosha by Rajshekhar (14th century): Similar in theme to Prabhavakcharita, covering figures from Bhadrabahu to Vastupala-Tejpal.
  • Vividh Tirtha Kalpa by Jine Prabhsuri (14th century): This is considered the most significant for the discussion. It comprises 62 "Kalpas" (chapters), each describing a pilgrimage site. The first is in Sanskrit, and most others are in Jain Maharashtri Prakrit. It's described as a "guidebook to pilgrimage sites in India." The author undertook extensive travels to document these sites. The text highlights the prolific literary output in Sanskrit, Jain Maharashtri, and Apabhramsa during the period of Muslim rule, noting the influence of Jain acharyas in Mughal courts, particularly mentioning Jine Prabhsuri's standing with Muhammad Tughlaq and Hiravijayasuri's influence in Akbar's court.

• Specific Kalpas Discussed:

  • Nashikyapurakalpa: Discusses Nashik in relation to the eighth Tirthankara, Chandraprabha. It traces the city's history through various epochs (Krita Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dwapara Yuga, Kali Yuga), linking it to figures like Brahma, Rama, Sita, Shukracharya, Yudhishthira, and various Jain acharyas and patrons.
  • Pratishthanapattanalpa: Focuses on Pratishthan (modern Paithan) in Maharashtra. It mentions 68 secular and 52 Jain pilgrimage sites in Maharashtra. It connects the city to the Satavahana dynasty, whom the authors of these Prabandhas identify as Jain, though this is debated by historians. The text mentions the worship of Ambadevi and the Yaksha Kapardi. It recounts the story of Kalakacharya and his sister, his interactions with the Satavahanas, and the decision to shift the Paryushana period to the fourth day. It also touches upon Acharya Padalipta and his writings. The connection between Ujjain's Vikramaditya and Satavahana is also mentioned.
  • Antariksha Parshvanathakalpa (Shripur): Details the story of an image of Parshvanatha that was created from sand by a priest accompanying the warriors Mali and Sumali. It was later found by King Shripal of the Chingull/Wingull region, who was cured of leprosy by bathing in the lake where the image was submerged. Shripal established the city of Shripur and a temple.
  • Kona Region: The origin of the Konkan region is discussed, referencing Prabandhachintamani and the poverty of the region. The connection with Sopara (Shurparaka) and Ashoka's edicts is made.
  • Bhadrabahu and Varahamihira: The Prabandhakosha mentions their story occurring in Pratishthan, while Prabandhachintamani places it in Pataliputra. It describes Bhadrabahu and the astrologer Varahamihira, and how Bhadrabahu composed the Upsargahara Stotra to overcome obstacles.
  • Siddhasena Divakara: The author of Nyayavatara Sutra, is mentioned to have died in Pratishthan.
  • Siddharaja and Kolhapur King: A story from Prabandhachintamani about the festival of lights at the Mahalakshmi temple in Kolhapur is noted.

• Conclusion: The section reiterates that literature often blends legends and history, making it difficult to extract pure history. However, the five Prabandha works mentioned provide valuable insights into Jain sites and influential figures.

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Section 13: Jain Purana Kings

This research paper, presented in Pune in 2010, explores the concept of "Purana" in Jain literature and the lives of kings within this tradition.

• Definition of Purana: The Hindu definition of Purana (origin, dissolution, dynasties, epochs, lineage history) is applied to Jain Puranic literature.
• Jain Puranic Literature: Inspired by Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata, Jain scholars also wrote Puranas, focusing on the lives of Jain great figures, Tirthankaras, and influential individuals like Rama and Krishna (who are revered as Baladeva and Vasudeva, respectively, in the Trishashti Shalaka Purusha).
• Key Jain Puranic Works:
  • Kalpasutra by Shrutakevali Bhadrabahu: Contains biographies of Rishabhadeva, Arishtanemi, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira.
  • Harivamsha Purana: A Mahakavya describing the life of Neminatha (Arishtanemi), attributed to Jinvasena of the Punnata Sangha (approx. 8th century).
  • Vasudevahindi by Acharya Sanghadasagani and Dharmasenagani (6th century): Features the lives of Rishabhadeva and Vasudeva (Krishna's father).
  • Paumachariya by Vimalasuri (3rd century): A Jain Ramayana, presented as a Mahakavya, which modifies the Valmiki Ramayana with logical and philosophical explanations based on Jain principles.
• Trishashti Shalaka Purusha: The narrative core of Jain Puranic Mahakavyas revolves around these 63 exemplary individuals: 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Chakravartis, 9 Vasudevas, 9 Prativāsudevas, and 9 Baladevas. These figures include Bharat, Brahmadata, Krishna, Rama, Balarama, Jarasandha, and Ravana, who shaped the history of Bharat Kshetra. This literature serves as religious poetry for moral instruction.
• Significance of 63 Shalaka Purusha: The work is considered a Purana due to its historical accounts, a Mahakavya for its depiction of great men, and a source of profound teachings.
• Major Works on 63 Shalaka Purushas:
  • Trishashti Mahapurushagunalankar: A vast poetic work in Apabhramsa by Pushpadanta (10th century).
  • Adipurana: By Acharya Jinvasena (9th century).
  • Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Charita: By Acharya Hemachandra (12th century, Shvetambara).
• Categories of Kings in Jain Puranic Literature:
  1. Renouncers: Kings who gave up their kingdoms, wealth, took initiation, and preached. (e.g., Rishabhadeva, Arishtanemi, Parshvanatha, Mahavira).
  2. Liberated Householders: Kings who lived as householders, experienced an event that led to detachment, took initiation, and attained liberation. (e.g., Pratyekabuddhas like Karakandu, King Nami, Naggati, Dwimukha).
  3. Patrons of Jainism: Kings who ruled, embraced Jainism, and propagated it, acting as pillars of the faith. (e.g., Chandragupta Maurya, Kharavela, Shrenik, Kunik, Jitashtru, Kumarpal).
  4. Ascetic Kings: Kings who took initiation but practiced austerity in seclusion for self-realization.
• Detailed Example: Rishabhadeva (First Tirthankara):
  • Born to King Nabhiraja and Queen Marudevi.
  • Civilized humanity by teaching agriculture, weaving, city planning, the institution of marriage, and women's education.
  • Established the Varna system based on occupation.
  • Renounced the world after entrusting his kingdom to his son Bharat.
  • Established the Shramana Dharma and the four-fold Jain Sangha.
  • His name is associated with "Rishabha" (bull), his symbol.
  • His influence is noted in Vedic and Buddhist traditions, with mentions in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, and Taittiriya Aranyaka. The Bhagavata Purana lists him as an avatar. The Manusmriti also praises him.
  • Archaeological findings at Mohenjo-daro suggest his worship.
  • He is the only Tirthankara who attained Nirvana at Ashtapada (Mount Kailash). Similarities with Shiva's depiction (jattadhari, meditation, bull symbol, family, ash adornment) are noted, suggesting potential absorption of some aspects of Rishabhadeva's personality into the later Shaiva tradition.
• Example: Pratyekabuddha Kings: Karakandu, Dwimukha, Nami Raja, and Naggati are mentioned from the Uttaradhyayana Sutra. The text notes that Buddhist traditions also consider them Pratyekabuddhas predating Gautama Buddha. Karakandu is likely from the era of Parshvanatha. The period of these Pratyekabuddhas is believed to be between Parshvanatha and Mahavira.
• Example: Kings Propagating Jainism:
  • Emperor Kharavela of Kalinga (1st century BCE): A Cheti dynasty king, known for his bravery and extensive empire. Born into a Jain family, he was religiously tolerant. His patronage of Jainism is evident from the Hathigumpha inscription. He liberated Jain holy sites from foreign invaders. The inscription details his 13-year reign, highlighting cultural and social aspects of his kingdom, including music, dance, and gender equality. Kalinga had a tradition of Jainism dating back to King Karakandu.
  • King Kumarpal of Gujarat (12th century CE): A Chalukya king, known for his wisdom and justice. Influenced by Jain Acharya Hemachandra, he embraced Jainism and promoted it extensively. He banned animal sacrifice, gambling, meat consumption, and alcohol. He patronized Jain temples and festivals. His story is narrated in Kumarpal Pratibodha by his disciple Somaprabhasuri.
• Conclusion: The paper emphasizes the difficulty of extracting history solely from literature but highlights the value of these Jain works in understanding the historical activities of Jain kings and the influence of Jainism.

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Section 14: Jain Philosophy and Changes in Jain Society

This lecture from November 2010 in Mumbai discusses the interplay between Jain philosophy and societal transformations.

• Introduction: Change and Jain Philosophy: Jain philosophy acknowledges change, defining reality (Sat) as having the characteristics of origination, decay, and permanence (Utpad-vyay-dhrauvya). The six Dravyas (substances) and their Paryayas (modes/states) provide a theoretical basis for change. The four Nikshepas (Dropping, Place, Time, State) also allow for understanding change. The doctrine of Anekantavada (non-absolutism/relativity) is central. The lecture aims to discuss Jainism's enduring principles and societal adaptations.
• Need to Change the Old Model of Studying Jainology: A traditional academic model viewed Jainism as strictly theoretical and rigid, considering adaptations in literature and society as "corruptions." Western scholars like John E. Cort and Paul Dundas have challenged this, suggesting that, like Hinduism's evolution, Jainism's changes should be seen as flexible and syncretic. The lecture questions applying different criteria to Jainism and Hinduism and asks if changes are merely external or also involve doctrinal compromises.
• Pillars of Jain Philosophy, Religion, and Practice:
  1. Family: The primary unit for transmitting Jain values.
  2. Swadhyaya Mandalas (Study Circles): Groups dedicated to learning and discussion.
  3. Ascetic Orders (Sadhu-Sadhvi): Monks and nuns play a crucial role.
  • Formal education provides minimal guidance. Despite being a minority, these three pillars have sustained Jainism for over 2600-2700 years, requiring some compromises with changing times and circumstances.
• Reasons for Jain Society's Apparent Proximity to Hinduism:
  1. Temples, Idols, Consecration, Worship: While theoretically non-theistic, Jainism incorporates temples and worship by establishing Vitaragi (passionless) Jinas in the sanctum. Worship is seen as generating positive karma, but true liberation requires meditative austerity and pure conduct. Worship of Yaksha-Yakshini and guardian deities might offer worldly benefits but not spiritual progress.
  2. Participation in Festivals: Jain participation in Hindu festivals is generally social, not religious, though exceptions exist. Specific Jain events are observed during Hindu festivals like Akshaya Tritiya and Diwali.
  3. Chaturmas and Vows: Jain Chaturmas emphasizes austerity and fasting, differing from Hindu vratas which often involve ritualistic worship and specific dietary practices. The term 'vrat' in Jainism primarily relates to Mahavratas and Shravaka Vratas (Anuvratas).
  4. Numerous Sects/Sub-sects: The existence of Shvetambara-Digambara differences and other sects is noted. While not endorsing schisms, the lecture points out that if various Hindu denominations are collectively called Hindu, then Jain sects with a common doctrinal basis should not face issues of unity. Young Jains are increasingly rejecting these internal divisions.
• Inherent Characteristics Due to Business and Agriculture:
  • High Literacy Rate: Jain society boasts the highest literacy rate, particularly among women, attributed to business needs and the historical emphasis on knowledge by Rishabhadeva's daughters.
  • Integration with Local Societies: As merchants, Jains spread throughout India and abroad, adopting local languages and customs while maintaining their distinct identity.
  • Linguistic Traits: Jain Tirthankaras preached in Prakrit languages to reach all societal levels. Jainism embraced linguistic changes, producing literature in Ardhamagadhi, Sauraseni, Maharashtri, Sanskrit, and Apabhramsa, and later contributing significantly to Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, and Kannada. Jain individuals often speak multiple languages.
  • Policy of Concordance with Political Systems: Jain history shows a policy of accommodation with various rulers, from Emperor Kharavela and King Kumarpal to Mughal emperors (like Muhammad Tughlaq and Akbar) and even European colonial powers. Jain acharyas played significant roles in maintaining inter-faith harmony and royal patronage.
• 'Jain Identity' Preserved Amidst Changes:
  1. Ahimsa in Diet: Strict adherence to vegetarianism, with careful consideration for all plant life.
  2. Sense of Community: A strong feeling of belonging and mutual support among minority Jains.
  3. Rigorous Conduct of Ascetics: Strict adherence to vows like walking barefoot, limited possessions, avoiding certain foods, and not eating at night, though discussions about relaxation occur.
  4. Theoretical Basis for Charity/Service: The principle of Parasparopagraho Jivanam (mutual support of souls) provides a strong foundation for charity and service, fostering generosity.
  5. 'Fifteen Forbidden Businesses' (Pandra Karmadan): While not all are strictly followed in modern times, Jains generally avoid professions directly involving violence (e.g., liquor, meat, leather).
  6. Emphasis on Austerity, Fasting, and Vows: Regular observance of vows and fasts is a marker of Jain identity.
  7. Samvatsari (Day of Forgiveness): An important practice rooted in the virtue of forgiveness.
  8. Absence of Rituals like Shraddha, Pitru Puja: Unlike Hinduism, Jainism does not practice ancestor rituals like Shraddha or Pinda-dana, due to its belief in immediate reincarnation.
  9. Study of Jain Philosophy Aligned with Science: Research exploring Jainism's compatibility with environmental protection, atomic theory, genetics, and evolution.
• Drawbacks Developed Over Time: The lecture acknowledges negative aspects such as materialism, sectarian rivalries, financial impropriety, ostentation in rituals, social pressure, and proselytizing zeal against other faiths. However, it notes that many of these are societal issues rather than uniquely Jain ones.
• Conclusion: Despite flaws, the majority of Jain society is described as religious, family-oriented, supportive, adaptable, and committed to preserving its identity. Jainism is not just a philosophy but an autonomous tradition with its own history, philosophy, literature, and art, contributing significantly to Indian culture.

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Section 15: Jain Chaturmas: Observations, Questions, and Expectations

This discussion from January 2008 in Pune, based on conversations with around 100 Jain housewives, focuses on the Chaturmas period and its practices among Shvetambara Sthanakavasis.

• Contrast with Hindu Practices: During Chaturmas, Hindu women engage in numerous vratas (vows) and pujas (worship) with elaborate rituals. Jain housewives, conversely, reduce household chores to attend religious programs and discourses, often in temples or designated centers.
• During Paryushan: Consumption of root vegetables, leafy greens, and sprouted legumes is avoided. Temples become centers of activity, with invited ascetics residing there. Committees are formed, substantial donations are collected, sponsors are sought, and elaborate programs, religious and social, are organized.
• Benefits of Chaturmas:
  1. Provides a meeting point for the Jain community, fostering unity.
  2. Offers an outlet for socializing and excitement during the monsoon.
  3. Educates youth and children about religious practices, instilling discipline and values.
  4. Encourages participation and talent through competitions.
  5. Enhances social prestige.
  6. Promotes generosity through donations.
  7. Provides opportunities for leadership development.
• Observations and Criticisms from the Discussion:
  1. Competition for Success: Chaturmas events are often judged by their scale, budget, grandeur, crowds, and feasts.
  2. Urban Bias: Ascetics are increasingly drawn to urban areas, limiting access for those in smaller towns and villages.
  3. Dominance of Certain Groups: Established individuals or groups often dominate activities, leading to dissatisfaction among others.
  4. Ego and Competition: A sense of competition arises among those trying to please the ascetics.
  5. Commercialization: Distribution of food items, books, and sponsorships is seen as a way to attract attendees.
  6. Lack of Continuity: Programs and events organized for different groups (children, women, youth) often lack follow-up.
  7. Political and Sponsor Involvement: Stage programs often feature politicians and sponsors with excessive praise and token honors, which can become monotonous.
  8. Disregard for Existing Initiatives: Existing study circles or religious initiatives may be ignored or belittled, leading to their decline.
  9. Practical Difficulties and Changing Norms: Busy lifestyles mean difficulty in adhering to strict rules. Issues like providing food for ascetics (violating the Gochari rule) and the need for a common meal preparation center are raised.
  10. Establishment of Institutions: A trend of ascetics establishing their own organizations or foundations to raise funds, which some deem "unfitting accumulation" for renunciates, while others support it if it leads to social welfare activities (schools, hospitals). This raises the question of whether the goal is self-liberation or social service.
  11. Personal Grievances:
      • Ascetics assigning difficult responsibilities.
      • Difficulty in maintaining contact with ascetics due to busy schedules.
      • Ascetics not having enough time for philosophical discussions due to public engagement.
      • Criticism of young people's attire or lack of religious knowledge discourages attendance.
      • Participation by both spouses leaving children and elders uncared for.
      • Ascetics seeking help for academic pursuits (forms, notes).
      • Programs becoming indistinguishable from secular entertainment.
      • Criticism of distributing religious literature indiscriminately.
• Future of Chaturmas: The consensus is that Chaturmas will not remain as it is. Future changes envisioned include:
  • More progressive ascetics and laity.
  • Shorter, knowledge-rich discourses.
  • Consolidation of formal rituals into an 8-day observance.
  • New generation adhering to strict rules for a shorter duration.
  • Elimination of ostentatious ceremonies and awards.
  • Increased unity among Jain sects.
  • A new generation that is truthful, decisive, unpretentious, and values vegetarianism, integrity, faith, and family, will shape the future of Chaturmas.

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Section 16: The Position of Women in Jain Religious Texts

This lecture from September 2008 in Kopargaon discusses the status of women in Jain scriptures in light of the women's liberation movement.

• Introduction to Women's Liberation: The global and Indian women's liberation movements are discussed. It's emphasized that women's empowerment is about personal development in collaboration with men, not separation. The historical role of women in Vedic and Buddhist traditions is briefly examined before focusing on Jain texts.
• Position of Women in Vedic Religion:
  • Early Vedic period: Women participated equally in religious activities.
  • Later Vedic and Brahmana periods: Discussions of salvation for women were rare.
  • Post-Vedic period: A decline in women's status, indicated by practices like polygamy, reduced marriageable age, and loss of rights to rituals.
  • Revival: Women regained some status through devotional movements (Bhakti) focused on rituals, fasts, and worship, but concepts of renunciation and salvation remained largely inaccessible.
• Position of Women in Buddhism:
  • Gautama Buddha initially hesitated to admit women to the Sangha but later allowed them at the insistence of Ananda and Mahaprajapati Gautami.
  • The "Eight Gurudharmas" prescribed for nuns are seen by some scholars as reflecting a less sympathetic view of women.
  • Women could attain Arhatship but not Buddhahood.
  • Laywomen (Upasikas) held a respected place, with Buddha engaging in discussions and resolving their issues. Figures like Sujata and Visakha are cited as ideal Upasikas.
• Position of Women in Jain Texts (Family Life):
  • Daughter: Loved within the family, with education focused on marriage. Rights to inheritance of father's property were limited. Unmarried daughters and widows often lived with their fathers.
  • Wife: Became part of the husband's joint family. More independent in childless families. Expenses were controlled by the husband. Wealthy women had to deal with co-wives. Limited financial freedom but not complete dependence. Full rights over their own property brought from their parents. Life after the husband's death was dependent. No purdah or veiling was mandatory in the home or society. Festivals and social gatherings were significant. Women in monogamous marriages generally had happy lives.
  • Motherhood: Highly valued. Acceptance of both sons and daughters.
  • Servants/Slaves: The status of female servants was pitiable, representing a dark aspect of ancient Indian history.
• Position of Women in Jain Texts (Social Life):
  • Social Participation: Women actively participated in festivals and celebrations, mingling freely with men.
  • Rituals and Beliefs: Despite the emphasis on karma and self-effort, societal traditions, superstitions, and beliefs in local deities, spirits, and magic persisted, especially among women concerning health, childbirth, and fortune.
  • Discussions on Desire and Morality: Jain texts frequently discuss desire, passion, and attraction, often in a prohibitive or condemnatory tone. The root of immorality is sometimes traced to unfulfilled desires, and polygamy led to jealousy and conflict.
  • Courtesans: Institutions like courtesans were established and respected, with famous figures like Kamadhvaja and Amrapali described as skilled in arts and sciences.
• Position of Women in Jain Texts (Religious Life):
  • Ascetic Orders (Sadhvis): The path of Sadhvis is derived from the path of Sadhus. Their initiation ceremonies were as glorious as those for monks. Differences in practices were seen as measures for their protection and virtue rather than subordination. However, the highest positions in the Sangha (like Upadhyayanis or female Ganadharas) were not held by women, indicating a patriarchal influence.
  • Laywomen (Shravikas/Upasikas): Played a significant role in religious life. They became followers of Jainism either through their husbands or by listening to religious discourses independently. They influenced their families, engaged in reasoned discussions with followers of other faiths, welcomed fellow Jains, offered alms and shelter to ascetics, remained steadfast in their principles, and some attained liberation through Sallekhana (ritualistic fasting unto death). Examples of virtuous laywomen are given, with rare exceptions of those who deterred their husbands from religious paths or engaged in immoral acts.
• Women's Cultural Life in Jain Texts: Descriptions include prosperous cities, well-planned streets, bustling markets, grand palaces, wealthy courtesans, beautiful gardens, residential quarters, agricultural lands, livestock, abundance of goods, entertainment like dance and drama, and joyful social festivals. Alongside this, the adoption of Shravaka and Sadhvi dharma by women, religious discourses, austere practices, debates with ascetics, and acts of charity are depicted. The text also mentions the harsh realities of diseases, famines, wars, political intrigue, domestic conflicts, poverty, crimes like rape and abduction, superstitions, and the subservient roles of maids and servants.
• Message of Women from Jain Texts: Figures like Arya Chandana, Tirthankara Malli, Sadhvi Rajmati, Shravika Jayanti, and Rohini convey a message of self-reliance, knowledge, and determined effort for achieving respect and status. True position comes from capability, virtuous conduct, and self-improvement, not through hatred or begging for rights.

This summary covers the main points of each section, providing a comprehensive overview of the historical and philosophical aspects of Jainism, its societal evolution, and the role of women as presented in the text.