Jain Tattvagyan - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Jain Tattvagyan" by Sukhlal Sanghavi:

The book "Jain Tattvagyan" by Sukhlal Sanghavi explores the fundamental principles of Jain philosophy, delving into the nature of the universe, the soul, and the path to liberation. It positions Jainism within the broader landscape of Indian philosophical traditions, highlighting its unique approach to understanding existence and achieving spiritual well-being.

The Nature and Origin of Philosophy:

The text begins by defining philosophy (Tattvagyan) as a contemplation of the external and internal nature of the world and its general, universal laws. It emphasizes that philosophical inquiry is not confined to any single region, race, or people but is a distinctive aspect of humanity that arises in various forms across different cultures. These thoughts develop through interaction and independent contemplation, often diverging from a common foundation.

The Root of Philosophical Inquiry:

Drawing a parallel between individual human development and the evolution of humanity, the book explains that philosophical questions arise from humanity's initial encounter with the wonders and mysteries of the external world – the sun, moon, stars, mountains, oceans, and natural phenomena. This external observation sparks contemplation about the subtle nature of the universe and its underlying laws. Simultaneously, humans also ponder their internal world – the nature of consciousness, the "self" (Aham), and its relationship to the external reality. These questions form the initial steps of philosophical inquiry.

Key Philosophical Questions:

The text outlines the fundamental questions that have driven philosophical thought:

About the External World: How did the constantly changing external universe come into being? From what was it created? Did it arise spontaneously, or was it created by someone? If it wasn't created, has it always existed? Are its causes eternal and unchanging, or are they subject to change? Are the causes diverse, or is there a single, unified cause for the entire universe? Is the universe's orderly and regulated management a result of intelligent design, or is it a mechanical, eternally existing phenomenon? If it's intelligent design, whose intelligence is responsible? Does this intelligent entity govern the universe neutrally, or does it manifest as the universe itself?
About the Internal World: What is the element that experiences the external world and thinks about it? Is this element, appearing as the "self," of the same nature as the external world, or is it of a different disposition? Is this internal element eternal, or did it originate from some other cause? Are the multiple "selves" that appear distinct, or are they creations of a single fundamental element? If these living entities are truly distinct, are they subject to change, or are they immutable? Do they have an end in time, or are they timeless? Similarly, are these boundless souls spatially pervasive or limited?

Classification of Philosophical Responses:

The text then categorizes the various philosophical responses that emerged from these questions, primarily focusing on Indian thought:

The "Prakritivadi" (Naturalist/Evolutionist) Stream: This view posits that the external world is not entirely new but arises as an evolution or manifestation from a subtle, eternal, and self-existent primordial cause, much like butter is latent in milk.
The "Paramanuvadi" (Atomist) Stream: This perspective argues that the external world is not born from a single cause but from various diverse causes. It likens the world's creation to assembling different pieces of wood to form a new chariot, emphasizing synthesis and analysis of fundamental causes. Both this stream and the first generally agreed that the "self" (Atman) is eternal, uncaused, and infinite in space and time. However, they differed on whether the Atman is one or many, stating that individual souls are distinct entities.
The "Brahmavadi" (Monistic/Idealist) Stream: This school of thought posits that both the external world and the internal living beings are manifestations of a single, unbroken, eternal truth (Brahman), denying any fundamental difference in the nature or cause of the external and internal realms.
A Fourth Stream (Early Jainism): This stream, considered the ancient root of Jain philosophy, shares similarities with the first two but also presents unique ideas. It did not believe in inherently different types of fundamental atoms (unlike some atomists) but rather in all atoms being of a similar nature. It also leaned towards the naturalist view of evolution and manifestation rather than creation from atoms alone, suggesting that the external world spontaneously evolves from atoms. A key characteristic of this stream was its view of the soul. While acknowledging that souls are distinct based on their bodies, it rejected the idea that they are spatially all-pervasive or purely immutable. Instead, it considered the soul to be dynamic and constantly changing, similar to the external world, and capable of expansion and contraction, thus being of a size determined by the body.

The book states that this fourth stream forms the ancient foundation of Jain philosophy, evolving long before Lord Mahavir. The clear, developed, and stable form of Jain philosophy seen today in ancient and modern texts is largely attributed to Lord Mahavir's teachings. It notes the remarkable consistency of Jain philosophical principles across its major branches, Svetambara and Digambara, in contrast to the numerous and often contradictory schisms within Vedic and Buddhist traditions. Jainism's unity in philosophical thought, despite differences in ritualistic practices, is highlighted as a unique feature in the history of human philosophy.

Eastern vs. Western Philosophy:

The text observes that both Eastern and Western philosophies encompass not only the contemplation of the world, soul, and God but also address the question of character and the pursuit of life. While Greek philosophy initially focused on the nature of the universe, its connection with Christianity introduced the quest for life. In Western thought, this quest became a significant branch of philosophy. However, Eastern philosophy, particularly Indian philosophy, appears to have begun with the question of the pursuit of life. Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions all integrate the contemplation of the soul's liberation alongside their philosophical inquiries. No Indian philosophy is content with merely contemplating the universe; instead, each, in its own way, explores the nature of the world, the soul, and God, ultimately delving into the question of life's purpose and the path to achieve it. The concluding focus on liberation in their foundational texts underscores this. This is why systems like Sankhya have their unique yoga, and Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Vedanta also incorporate yogic principles. Buddhist philosophy also emphasizes its distinct yogic practices, and Jain philosophy likewise presents comprehensive yogic principles.

The Unity of Fundamental Questions of Life's Pursuit:

Jain philosophy, like other Indian systems, has two main aspects: philosophical inquiry (Tattvachintan) and the pursuit of life's goals (Jeevan Shodhan). The differences between Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions lie primarily in their views on the nature of the world, soul, and God, and their external practices and rituals. However, they are united in their fundamental questions and answers regarding the pursuit of life. Regardless of whether they believe in God, are naturalists or atomists, accept the plurality or unity of souls, or view souls as infinite or finite, all Indian philosophies address:

Does suffering exist?
What is the cause of suffering?
Can the cause of suffering be eliminated?
If so, how?
What is the ultimate goal?

The answers, though expressed in different words and with varying degrees of detail, are consistent: ignorance (Avidya) and craving (Trishna) are the causes of suffering. Their elimination is possible, and by eradicating the causes of suffering through the cessation of ignorance and craving, suffering itself ceases. This is the ultimate goal of life. Indian philosophical traditions are fundamentally united in their core ideas and principles regarding the pursuit of life. Therefore, discussing Jain philosophy largely involves elaborating on its approach to this pursuit.

The Jain Process of Life's Pursuit:

Jain philosophy states that the soul is naturally pure, possessing the nature of existence, consciousness, and bliss. The impurities, afflictions, or suffering seen in the soul are attributed to the eternal flow of ignorance and karma. To reduce and eradicate ignorance and dissolve afflictions, Jain philosophy advocates for the development of discriminative wisdom (Vivek Shakti) and the destruction of the tendencies of attachment and aversion (Raga-Dvesha).

Jainism categorizes the soul into three stages of spiritual development:

Bahiratma (Outer Soul): This is the initial stage where ignorance and attachment are dominant, preventing the soul from contemplating reality or taking any step towards lasting happiness. Rebirth is inevitable at this stage, and despite external progress, the soul remains spiritually undeveloped.
Antaratma (Inner Soul): This stage begins when discriminative wisdom awakens, and the power of attachment and aversion starts to diminish. While worldly activities may continue to some extent, they are performed with detachment, commensurate with the development of wisdom and the weakening of passions. This stage is characterized by inner renunciation amidst external activity.
Paramatma (Supreme Soul/Liberated Soul): Upon transcending numerous stages of the Antaratma, the soul is considered to have attained the state of Paramatma. This is the final and complete stage of life's pursuit. Once this stage is reached, the cycle of rebirth permanently ceases.

In essence, Jainism asserts that lack of wisdom (Mithyādr̥ṣṭi) and attachment (Tr̥ṣṇa) are the causes of transmigration (Samsara). Conversely, wisdom (Vivek) and freedom from passions (Vītarāgatva) constitute liberation (Moksha) or the path to it. This summarizes the Jain approach to the pursuit of life.

Comparison with Other Indian Philosophies:

The text then engages in a comparative analysis of Jain philosophy with other Indian schools:

Reality of the World: Unlike the illusionistic views of Advaita Vedanta, Jainism considers the world to be real. However, it is not merely inert matter (like Charvaka) nor is it solely pure consciousness (like Shankara's Vedanta). Jainism accepts the existence of two eternal, distinct natures: inert (Jada) and conscious (Chetana), which exist independently yet co-dependently in the flow of space and time.
The Role of God: Jainism, unlike Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Yoga, does not believe in a creator God. It posits that the world's processes occur automatically through the inherent nature of inert and conscious substances, without the intervention of a supreme conscious entity. While it accepts the existence of countless inert atoms (similar to atomists) and countless individual conscious souls (like Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Buddhism), it rejects the notion of an Ishvara (God) as a distinct, eternal being responsible for creation or governance.
Causality and Action: Jainism believes that the world's transformations occur automatically. However, it attributes events that appear to be the result of intelligence and effort to the actions of worldly beings (samsari jivas) participating in those events, rather than to God. Ancient Sankhya and Buddhism hold similar views on this point.
Nature of Consciousness: While Vedanta views consciousness as singular and undivided, Jainism, like Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Buddhism, recognizes consciousness as manifold. However, Jainism distinguishes itself by stating that while consciousness is inherently eternal and unchanging, it is also subject to the influence of space and time. Therefore, like inert matter, the soul is also considered to be subject to change and evolution.
The Concept of Godhead: Although Jainism does not recognize a separate entity called God, it accepts all the qualities attributed to God within the soul. Every soul possesses the potential for godhood, even if it is obscured by coverings. By striving in the right direction, a soul can fully manifest its inherent divine potential and become a god. Thus, while there isn't a separate divine essence, Jainism's belief in the divine essence allows for the concept of worship. All souls that have become completely free from desires are considered equally divine. The goal of Jain worship is to emulate these perfect souls by manifesting the same inherent potential within oneself. Just as Vedanta states that the individual soul (Jiva) is Brahman, Jainism states that the individual soul is itself God or Paramatma. In Vedanta, this Brahmanhood is obscured by ignorance and realized through knowledge; similarly, in Jainism, the Paramatma-hood of the soul is obscured by coverings, which, when removed, lead to its full realization. Apart from the difference in the number of individual souls, there is no fundamental difference between Jainism and Vedanta in this regard.

The Seven Truths (Tattvas) and Spiritual Development:

The text then discusses the remaining five of the seven fundamental truths (Tattvas) in Jainism, focusing on the four that pertain to the pursuit of life or spiritual development: bondage (Bandha), inflow of karma (Asrava), cessation of karma (Samvara), and liberation (Moksha). These are compared to the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism (suffering, its cause, the path, and Nirvana) and similar frameworks in Sankhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, and Vedanta.

The text also notes that Jainism describes the spiritual journey in three brief stages (Bahiratma, Antaratma, Paramatma) and in a more detailed fourteen stages known as Gunathana. This parallels the fourteen stages of spiritual progress described in Vedanta texts like the Yogavasistha and the five stages of mental states in Sankhya-Yoga. Buddhist philosophy also outlines six stages of spiritual development.

The question arises: if all Indian philosophies are fundamentally unified in their understanding of the progression from bondage to liberation and its causes, why are there so many sectarian differences? The answer lies in two factors: differences in philosophical doctrines and differences in external practices and rituals. Some traditions, like Vedanta, Buddhism, and Jainism, have differences in both philosophical outlook and external practices. Others, like the branches of Jainism (Svetambara, Digambara, Sthanakavasi), primarily differ in their external practices, with their core philosophical tenets remaining largely the same.

The text concludes by highlighting two overarching virtues of Jain philosophy: Anekanta (Non-absolutism/Plurality of Viewpoints) and Ahimsa (Non-violence).

Anekanta: Truth is one, but human perception is limited. To perceive truth fully, one must expand their perspective and embrace all possible ways of understanding. This principle of Anekanta aims to develop discriminative wisdom and advance towards the perception of truth, not for debate or wordplay, but as an integral part of life's pursuit. It involves integrating all aspects and parts of the truth within a broad mental framework.
Ahimsa: As a person's discriminative wisdom grows, they confront their inner limitations and desires. True Anekanta can only be practiced by confronting these internal obstacles. The question of protecting and nurturing the idea of Anekanta leads to the principle of Ahimsa. Jain Ahimsa is not passive inaction but requires true spiritual strength. When impulses, desires, or limitations arise, Jain Ahimsa means not succumbing to them but struggling against them and conquering these opposing forces. This spiritual victory is the core of Jain Ahimsa, which can be called self-control, penance, or meditation. Jain Ahimsa is not merely external conduct but a virtuous action born from pure thought. Any external practice that supports this inner Ahimsa is recognized as such in Jain philosophy. Conversely, any conduct that appears outwardly non-violent but lacks this inner spiritual foundation is not considered Ahimsa from a Jain perspective.

The author clarifies that this discussion is not an exhaustive debate on specific doctrines but an indication of the Jain way of thinking. Similarly, the discussion on practices is not about external rules but about the underlying principles of life's pursuit, referred to in Jain terminology as Adrava, Samvara, etc.