Jain Sanskruti Ka Hridaya - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Jain Sanskruti ka Hridaya" by Sukhlal Sanghavi:

The book, "Jain Sanskruti ka Hridaya" (The Heart of Jain Culture), by Sukhlal Sanghavi, delves into the core essence of Jain culture, distinguishing it from its outward manifestations. The author emphasizes that culture, like a flowing river, evolves and integrates various streams, changing its form and characteristics from its origin. Jain culture is no exception to this rule.

Two Aspects of Jain Culture:

Sanghavi posits that Jain culture, like any other, has two facets:

External Aspect: This includes tangible elements such as scriptures, language, temples, architecture, idol worship, rituals, instruments, dietary rules, festivals, and customs. While these are important, Sanghavi stresses that their presence doesn't necessarily guarantee the presence of the "heart" of the culture. Conversely, the heart of a culture can exist even in the absence of these external forms.
Internal Aspect (The Heart): This is the core, the true essence, which is deeply personal and can only be fully grasped by those who internalize it within their lives. While outsiders cannot directly perceive it, they can infer it from the behavior of individuals living this internal cultural life and its impact on the surrounding environment. Sanghavi's primary focus is to introduce this internal, or "heart," aspect, which often relies on practiced imagination and inference.

The Core of Jain Culture: Nivartak Dharma (The Renunciatory Path)

The author identifies Nivartak Dharma as the soul or heart of Jain culture. This refers to a spiritual path focused on cessation or renunciation, specifically the cessation of the cycle of rebirth (samsara). It's a path whose origin, development, and propagation are aimed at achieving this ultimate liberation.

Classification of Religions:

To understand Nivartak Dharma, Sanghavi categorizes living and historical religions into three main types based on their core focus:

Focus on the Present Life: This category includes thinkers who primarily seek happiness in the current life. They do not contemplate an afterlife or have any desire for future births. This perspective aligns with what ancient scriptures refer to as "Anatmavadi" (non-self proponents) or "Nāstika" (atheists), later evolving into the Charvaka school. Their ultimate goal is sensory pleasure, and they do not conceptualize "Dharma" in the way of rituals or moral conduct. They are driven by the pursuit of Kama (desire/pleasure), and at most, Artha (wealth/means) alongside it.
Pravartak Dharma (The Propagating/Progressive Path): This group acknowledges the existence of the soul and the cycle of rebirth. They believe that happiness can be pursued in both the present and future lives. To achieve higher and more lasting happiness in subsequent births, they emphasize the importance of religious observances and duties. Their aim is to regulate society and personal conduct to ensure well-being in this life and preparation for a better afterlife. The key pursuit here is Kama, Artha, and Dharma, but not Moksha (liberation). Ancient Iranian Aryans (Zoroastrians) and Vedic Aryans (followers of the Vedas) are considered adherents of Pravartak Dharma. The Mimamsa school of Vedic philosophy is seen as a living example of this path.
Nivartak Dharma (The Renunciatory/Cessationist Path): This path is diametrically opposed to Pravartak Dharma. While acknowledging the soul and rebirth, adherents of Nivartak Dharma are not content with the pursuit of higher or longer-lasting happiness in future lives. They believe that any happiness, however elevated or prolonged, is ultimately inferior if it is impermanent. Their quest is for a happiness that, once attained, is never lost. This pursuit leads them to the concept of Moksha (liberation), a state where one is freed from the cycle of birth and death.
- Rejection of External Rituals: Nivartak Dharma adherents consider the elaborate rituals and practices of Pravartak Dharma as hindrances to their ultimate goal of Moksha.
- Emphasis on Internal Purity: They discovered a path dependent not on external means but on the purification of thought and conduct by the individual. This path of absolute purity of thought and action became known as Nivartak Dharma or the path to Moksha.
- Universality: Sanghavi argues that most Indian philosophical schools, including those considered "Avedik" like Buddhism and Jainism, and even "Vedic" ones like Nyaya-Vaisheshika, Sankhya-Yoga, and Upanishadic philosophy, are fundamentally rooted in Nivartak Dharma. All these schools, whether Vedic or Avedik, ultimately devalue Pravartak Dharma and its associated rituals (like Yajnas), advocating for right knowledge (Samyak Jnana) and an unattached way of life as the means to escape the cycle of rebirth.

Pravartak Dharma in Society vs. Nivartak Dharma in Individuals:

Pravartak Dharma: It is society-oriented, emphasizing the fulfillment of social and religious duties within the existing societal framework. Individuals are bound by duties to sages (study), ancestors (progeny), and deities (rituals). The goal is to refine desires rather than eradicate them entirely. The householder's stage of life is considered essential.
Nivartak Dharma: It is individual-oriented, arising from the intense desire for self-realization. It prompts introspection on the nature of the soul, its relationship with others, and the means to achieve self-realization through contemplation, meditation, penance, and an detached life. This path is best suited for exceptional individuals and cannot be broadly applied to society. It does not recognize the bonds of householder life and permits complete renunciation. The primary duty is the unwavering effort to achieve self-realization and the eradication of desires that obstruct it.

Influence and Development of Nivartak Dharma:

Sanghavi suggests that even before the arrival of Vedic Aryans, Nivartak Dharma existed in some form in India. Initially, there was conflict between these two religious systems. However, the austerity, meditative practices, and detached conduct of the few true followers of Nivartak Dharma gradually influenced the general populace, attracting some followers of Pravartak Dharma. This led to the development of Nivartak Dharma in various forms. The impact was such that the earlier emphasis on Brahmacharya and Grihastha (householder) stages of life in Pravartak Dharma evolved to include Vanaprastha (forest-dweller) and Sannyasa (renouncer), culminating in the four Ashramas. The growing influence of Nivartak Dharma eventually led Vedic proponents to accept that renunciation was permissible even without first undergoing the householder stage, if there was intense detachment. This synthesis is evident in India's philosophical literature and popular life.

Synthesis and Conflict:

Synthesis: Philosophers who, while being descendants of Pravartak Dharma adherents, fully embraced Nivartak Dharma, acknowledged its importance in thought and life. They also maintained the authority of their ancestral tradition and the Vedas. Philosophers of Nyaya-Vaisheshika and Upanishadic schools are cited as examples. Some proponents of Nivartak Dharma vehemently opposed the ritualistic practices of Pravartak Dharma but did not entirely reject the underlying scriptures (Shruti). Rishis like Kapila, the founder of Sankhya, fall into this category, which explains why Sankhya-Yoga, despite its opposition to Pravartak Dharma, was eventually integrated into Vedic philosophy.
Conflict: This process of synthesis continued for centuries. However, there were also extremists on both sides who rejected the other's path. Before Mahavira and Buddha, many proponents of Nivartak Dharma existed. During their time, numerous organizations supporting Nivartak Dharma were prevalent, and new ones were emerging, often strongly opposing Pravartak Dharma. The influence of various ascetic practices, meditation techniques, and renunciatory lifestyles fostered under Nivartak Dharma had spread across all social strata. This led to a powerful wave of conflict between Pravartak and Nivartak Dharma during the time of Mahavira and Buddha, as evidenced in Jain-Buddh and contemporary Brahmanical literature.
- Buddha and Mahavira: Lord Buddha was a staunch thinker who did not incorporate the fundamental tenets or scriptures of Pravartak Dharma into his Nivartak Dharma. Similarly, the austere Mahavira was a staunch adherent of Nivartak Dharma. Despite many Vedic scholars becoming initiated into Jain and Buddhist traditions, they made no effort to establish the authority of the Vedas in Jain and Buddhist literature, nor did they accept the ritualistic practices prescribed in Brahmanical texts.

Tenets and Conduct of Nivartak Dharma:

By the time of Mahavira and Buddha, Nivartak Dharma had developed certain key principles and practices:

Self-purification as the Primary Goal: Not the attainment of worldly or otherworldly positions.
Eradication of Obstacles: Rooting out spiritual attachment, ignorance, and the resultant cravings.
Means to the Goal: Spiritual knowledge, complete detachment in all life dealings, various physical, mental, and verbal austerities, meditation practices, yogic paths, and the lifelong observance of the five Mahavratas (great vows).
Primacy of Spiritual Teachings: Accepting the spiritual pronouncements of any enlightened person, regardless of language, rather than scriptures divinely or humanly ordained in a specific language.
Spiritual Purity as the Criterion for Guru-hood: Not birth-based caste. This grants equal spiritual rights to women and Shudras as to Brahmin and Kshatriya men.
Prohibition of Alcohol and Meat: In religious and social life.

These principles, differing from Pravartak Dharma, had taken root and were gaining strength.

The Nirgrantha Sect:

Among the various organizations and sects embodying the aforementioned characteristics of Nivartak Dharma, there was an ancient one that had been developing in its unique way for centuries before Mahavira. Rishabhadeva, Neminatha, and Parshvanatha were revered figures within this sect. Various names like Yati, Bhikshu, Muni, Angara, and Shramana were used for its adherents. When Mahavira, the great ascetic, became its head, the sect likely became widely known as Nirgrantha. While the term "Jina" was commonly used for enlightened individuals in Nivartak Dharma paths, the followers of Mahavira were not initially known as "Jain" (followers of Jina). Instead, terms like "Niggath" and "Samarasag" were used for renunciates and householders of Mahavira's tradition.

Jain and Buddhist Sects:

The Nirgrantha (Jain) sect possessed most of the characteristics of Nivartak Dharma. However, due to the distinct principles and practices introduced by earlier great ascetics like Rishabhadeva and ultimately by Mahavira, this tradition, led by Mahavira, developed unique features that differentiated it from other renunciatory sects, including Buddhism.

Similarities: Mahavira and Buddha were contemporaries, often traveled in the same regions, and preached in the same language to similar followers. Their primary goals were also similar.
Differences:
- Object of Worship: The Buddhist tradition primarily worships Buddha and adheres to his teachings. The Jain tradition considers Mahavira and other Tirthankaras as revered deities and accepts their teachings.
- Emphasis: Buddhism emphasizes meditation and mental control for mental purification, while Jainism, in addition to meditation and mental control, places greater emphasis on external austerity and self-mortification.
- Social Interaction: Buddha's life and teachings were more interactive and oriented towards direct social service, unlike Mahavira's.
- Conduct of Monks: The external conduct of Buddhist monks (Angaras) was less regulated than that of Jain monks.

These differences contributed to Buddhism spreading widely beyond India's borders, adopted by diverse peoples and languages. Jainism, however, did not achieve the same global reach.

Jainism's Impact in India:

Although Jainism did not spread internationally, it gradually permeated all distant parts of India, leaving its unique imprint. As Jainism expanded, it inevitably encountered and interacted with both Pravartak Dharma followers and other renunciatory sects. This interaction led to a mutual influence, with Jain tenets impacting others and vice-versa. This process, spanning millennia, has resulted in a lasting, tolerant synthesis of Jainism with other Indian and non-Indian religious traditions, akin to harmonious relationships within a family. This synthesis makes it difficult for ordinary people to discern the original elements of Jainism from those absorbed from external influences.

Influence of Other Sects on Jain Culture:

Devotional Practices: While Jainism's ideal is the worship of a perfected human being, celestial deities like Indra and Varuna have subtly entered Jain practices through prayers and praises, which, Sanghavi notes, is incongruent with Jainism's core objective.
Ritualistic Adornments: While Jainism's symbolic representation of human idols aligns with its objective, the accompanying opulence and grandeur are incompatible with the goal of renunciation.
Social Hierarchy: Jainism's aim to uplift women and Shudras to spiritual equality and social respect has been undermined. Some Jain traditions have ceased to accept Shudras and have even erected caste barriers similar to the Brahmanical tradition. In regions with Brahmanical dominance, Shudras were excluded from Jain fold. Jainism, which initially opposed caste discrimination, later created new caste divisions in places like South India and deemed women incapable of full spiritual realization, clearly reflecting the influence of orthodox Brahmanism.
Introduction of Rituals: Practices like Mantras and astrology, unrelated to Jainism's core aim, were incorporated. Even Jain monks (Angaras) adopted them. Rituals like the sacred thread (Yajnopavita), which had no original connection to Jainism, became part of Jain culture in South India during the medieval period, leading to the establishment of a priestly class similar to that in the Brahmanical tradition. Rituals mimicking Vedic Yajnas, like Pratishtha, were also introduced. These changes occurred to protect the ordinary followers who joined Jainism from opposing traditions or were unable to resist the influences of other traditions.

Impact of Jain Culture on Others:

Compassion for Living Beings: While all religions acknowledge compassion, Jainism's profound emphasis and dedicated efforts towards the protection of life have resulted in a strong imprint of this value on the general populace wherever Jain influence has been present. Even non-Jains in many parts of India who consider themselves opposed to Jainism have developed a dislike for violence against any living being. This general cultivation of Ahimsa (non-violence) has led to significant changes in the practices of other traditions like Vaishnavism, differentiating them from the older Vedic traditions.
Austerity (Tapasya): Both renunciates and householders in Jainism have increasingly embraced austerity. This has influenced neighboring societies to adopt various forms of virtuous austerities. The general public holds Jain austerity in high regard, with even Muslim emperors and powerful officials showing respect and offering concessions to Jain communities due to their ascetic practices.
Temperance: Jainism's persistent efforts to prevent and reduce the consumption of alcohol and other intoxicants have been instrumental in instilling good habits in many addicted communities. Despite similar efforts by Buddhism and other sects, Jain endeavors in this direction continue. In areas with significant Jain influence, even during the current era of unrestrained indulgence, Muslims and meat-eating communities hesitate to openly consume meat and alcohol. Lokmanya Tilak aptly stated that the insistence on life protection and vegetarianism in regions like Gujarat is a direct influence of Jain tradition.
Dialectical Thinking and Synthesis: A fundamental principle of Jain thought is to consider matters from multiple perspectives and viewpoints, striving to understand the opponent's position with as much sympathy as one's own, and ultimately basing one's conduct on synthesis. While this principle is inherent in the lives of all thinkers and essential for societal order and peace, Jain thinkers have discussed and emphasized it so much that even the most rigid opposing sects have been inspired by it. Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, built upon the Upanishads, is considered to be the Anekantavada (many-sidedness) of Jainism.

The Ideals of the Jain Tradition:

To understand the heart of Jain culture, Sanghavi highlights key ideals revered throughout Jain tradition:

Rishabhadeva: The earliest ideal is Rishabhadeva and his family. Rishabhadeva spent a significant portion of his life responsibly fulfilling his duties to his subjects. He taught literacy to an uneducated populace, introduced vocational skills like farming and crafts, and established rules of social conduct. When he felt his eldest son, Bharata, was ready to govern, he abdicated and embarked on a path of intense asceticism to explore profound spiritual questions.
Brahmism and Sundari: Rishabhadeva's daughters, Brahmis and Sundari, represent a significant moral evolution. Sundari defied the prevailing practice of sibling marriage through her gentle asceticism, influencing her brother Bharata so profoundly that he not only abandoned the idea of marrying her but became her devotee. This contrasted with the Rigvedic Yamasookta where brother Yama rejects sister Yami's marital proposal. Sundari's act of turning a marriage proposal into asceticism effectively ended the practice of sibling marriage.
Bharata and Bahubali: A fierce war erupted between Rishabhadeva's sons, Bharata and Bahubali, over the kingdom. In a duel, Bahubali, realizing that his strike would severely injure Bharata, transformed the moment of impending victory over his brother into a victory over himself. He understood that true victory lay in conquering ego and desire, rather than winning a kingdom and sowing seeds of enmity and family discord. He directed his strength against his own anger and pride, setting a living example of non-retaliation against aggression. This ultimately humbled Bharata's greed and pride.
Neminatha: At a time when meat consumption was prevalent among all classes, during social and religious occasions, Yadunandan Neminatha made a remarkable decision. Overwhelmed by the cries of innocent animals being slaughtered for his wedding feast, he resolved not to proceed with the wedding. He returned from the wedding procession and proceeded to Mount Girnar for penance. By renouncing his royal life and embracing a path of meditation and austerity in his youth, he struck such a powerful blow against the entrenched practice of animal sacrifice that it was eradicated in Gujarat and surrounding regions, leading to the establishment of animal shelters (Pinjrapoles).
Parshvanatha: Parshvanatha's life ideal was distinct. He risked the displeasure of easily angered ascetics like Durvasa and their followers by attempting to save a burning snake with a wet twig. This act continues to influence regions under Jain influence, where even snakes are not harmed.
Mahavira: The ascetic Mahavira also demonstrated the complete practice of his principle of Ahimsa. While meditating in a forest, a venomous snake bit him. He remained steadfast in his meditation and applied the principle of compassion to the snake, becoming a living embodiment of the Yoga Sutra: "In the presence of perfected Ahimsa, enmity ceases." He consistently strove to prevent violence in religious ceremonies like Yajnas throughout his life.

These ideals have inspired Jain culture, which, despite facing numerous difficulties, has strived to preserve the essence of its values, living on in India's religious, social, and political history. Both ascetics and householders, including kings, ministers, and merchants, have promoted the Jain ideals of Ahimsa, austerity, and self-control in their own ways.

The Objective of Culture:

Sanghavi defines the objective of culture as advancing towards the welfare of humanity. This is achieved by contributing to the well-being of the nation that nurtures it. External aspects of culture flourish during prosperous times and are attractive then, but the "heart" of culture is always essential, in times of adversity and prosperity alike. No culture can survive or maintain its prestige solely on its history and past glories unless it contributes to future development.

Nivarta and Pravarta: Two Sides of a Coin:

Nivarta (Cessation/Renunciation): Jain culture originated with the view of escaping rebirth (samsara). Its entire framework of thought and conduct was aligned with this goal. However, it did not remain confined to individuals but evolved into a specific social form.
Pravarta (Activity/Engagement): Sanghavi argues that no society can thrive or achieve true cessation solely on the labyrinth of renunciation. If those who reject renunciation and solely prioritize the cycle of activity perish in its storms, it is equally true that without engaging in activity, renunciation becomes an empty castle in the air. The historical and philosophical truth is that activity and cessation are two facets of the same human welfare. One cannot escape faults, errors, evils, and misfortune without both renouncing faults and actively pursuing virtues and beneficial activities. A sick person cannot survive merely by abstaining from unwholesome food; they must also consume wholesome food. Just as removing impure blood is vital for life, circulating new blood is equally crucial.

Activity Oriented Towards Cessation:

Jain culture, which has survived from Rishabhadeva to the present day, has not done so solely through renunciation but also through beneficial activity. Just as Pravartak Dharma adherents, by adopting the beautiful elements of the renunciatory path, created a broadly beneficial culture, which is revitalized in the Gita and adapted in a new useful form by Gandhiji, so too must the renunciatory Jain culture embrace essential beneficial activities to thrive in today's changed circumstances. Based on its fundamental principles of philosophy and conduct, and the ideals it has cherished, Jain culture can achieve a beneficial synthesis of activity that brings well-being to all.

Responsibilities of the Jain Community:

Sanghavi outlines the duties of the Jain community in the present context:

Addressing Societal Ills: The abandonment of the ascetic class, which is free from family bonds and follows Mahavira's ideal of self-likeness and Rishabhadeva and Neminatha's examples, should be directed towards combating illiteracy, superstitions, laziness, disunity, alcoholism, and the depletion of livestock due to famine, floods, and war.
Economic Contribution: Householders have a duty to use and invest wealth for the nation, embodying Gandhiji's principle of Trusteeship. Those with intelligence and courage should humbly engage in constructive national work. The constructive programs of the Congress are not to be neglected; they are an integral part of Jain culture.
Inclusivity and Ahimsa: Embracing the downtrodden and untouchables as brothers is essential for being a Jain. Promoting indigenous industries that are close to Ahimsa and uphold the principles of self-likeness and non-possession is crucial for being a follower of Ahimsa.

Conclusion:

Sanghavi urges the Jain community to shed the illusion that their culture is preserved in meaningless ostentation and wastage of energy. Instead, they should strive to protect its heart, which encompasses the unity of Hindus and Muslims, and indeed, all communities.

The Signal of Culture:

The ultimate signal of culture is the reduction and eradication of greed and attachment, not the eradication of activity itself. Activity that is impossible without attachment, such as lustful indulgence and personal hoarding, is to be abandoned. Activities that sustain, nurture, and develop society are possible with or without attachment. Therefore, culture signifies the renunciation of attachment. If Jain culture deviates from the general principles of culture, it risks becoming distorted and eventually disappearing.