Jain Sahitya Swetambara Digambara - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Sahitya Swetambara Digambara" by Rameshchandra Rai, based on the provided PDF content:

The text delves into the complex and historically debated nature of Jain literature, particularly focusing on the distinctions and shared origins between the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions. It addresses the question of Jainism's antiquity, comparing it to Vedic and Buddhist traditions.

Antiquity and Origins of Jain Literature:

The author acknowledges that the claim of Jainism being the oldest Indian religion, alongside Vedic and Buddhist faiths, is a subject of ongoing debate. This stems from the difficulty in definitively dating their respective literatures, as traditions point to earlier origins that are hard to verify scientifically.
The Vedic tradition is considered apauruṣeya (not authored by humans), making its dating problematic. Similarly, Buddhist tradition believes in prior Buddhas before Gautama Buddha.
The Jain tradition recognizes Lord Mahāvīra as the 24th Tīrthaṅkara, with the list beginning with Ṛṣabhadeva. Believing this tradition implies that Jain literature cannot be entirely disconnected from the literary tradition starting with Ṛṣabhadeva. Even a small percentage of scientific truth in this lineage suggests Jain literature existed long before Mahāvīra's lifetime (599-530 BCE).
The text notes that scholars like Max Müller have placed the Vedic Samhitas around the same period. Therefore, Jain literature, originating from Eastern India, is potentially as old as Vedic literature, which was composed and sung in Northwest India.

Challenges to the Antiquity of Available Jain Literature:

A significant challenge to the claimed antiquity of Jain literature is that the currently available texts, in terms of language, sentiment, and thought, do not always appear as ancient as tradition suggests.
Traditions surrounding the compilation of Jain literature support this observation.

The Canon and its Division:

The earliest available literature is divided into Śrutāṅgas: Āyāraṅga, Sūyagaḍa, Ḍhāṇāṅga, Samavāyaṅga, Viaha Paṇṇatti, Nāyādhammakahā, Uvāsagadasā, Antagaḍadasā, Aṇuttarovavāiyadasā, Paṇha Vāgaraṇa, and Vivāga Sūya.
The Diṭṭhivāda Śrutāṅga is consistently mentioned in Jain literature, though its content is largely considered lost or inaccessible.

The Digambara and Śvetāmbara Perspectives on the Canon:

Digambara Tradition: Believes that Mahāvīra's entire teachings were divided into two categories by his disciples: Aṅgapraviṣṭa (within the canon) and Aṅgabāhya (outside the canon). They assert that nothing of the Aṅgapraviṣṭa literature remains.
Śvetāmbara Tradition: Accepts that the Aṅgapraviṣṭa literature was compiled into twelve Angas from the tenth century after Mahāvīra's Nirvana.
The dispute suggests that when this literature was compiled in the 4th century CE, there was a belief that even though it was traditional, it had become disconnected from its original form.
The Digambara tradition believes the Aṅgabāhya literature is completely destroyed, while the Śvetāmbara tradition acknowledges its existence.

Authenticity and Transmission:

The text refers to the views of Ācārya Pūjyapāda in his commentary Sarvārthasiddhi regarding the authenticity of accepted texts.
Indian ācāryas, due to the passage of time, declining lifespan, and the need to benefit disciples, composed texts like Daśavaikālika. These works are considered as authoritative as the Sūtras composed by earlier ācāryas and Śrutakevalīs, as they are essentially the same in meaning, just as water in a pot is not different from the ocean it came from.
This implies that although some works might not be direct words of Mahāvīra but by later Jain ācāryas, these ācāryas were of a scholarly caliber comparable to Mahāvīra's disciples. Therefore, even if not pure Mahāvīra Vachana, they are respected as much as the Śrutāṅgas in Jainism.

Śvetāmbara Compilation Efforts:

The Śvetāmbara tradition considers the words of Jina as preserved. Their traditions state that 160 years after Mahāvīra's Nirvana, Ācārya Sthūlabhadra convened a conference in Pataliputra, where 11 Angas were compiled. The twelfth Anga, Dṛṣṭivāda, was not known by any of the attending monks, so it couldn't be compiled.
Centuries later, this compilation fragmented. Approximately 840 years after Mahāvīra's Nirvana, Ācārya Skandila convened a council in Mathura to reorganize the Āgama literature. Around the same time, Nāgārjuna Sūri in Valabhi also attempted to preserve the Āgamas through a monastic council.
However, the texts of these three councils (Pataliputra, Mathura, and the first Valabhi) are not available, only mentioned sporadically in literature.
Finally, approximately 980 years after Mahāvīra's Nirvana, a council at Valabhi under Devardhigaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa compiled about 45-46 texts, which are still in widespread use today.

Modern Understanding of Jain Literature:

Scientifically, the Jain literature available today is understood to be a partial preservation of the teachings and thought traditions of Mahāvīra or those who preceded him. The majority of it was shaped by changes and additions up to the 4th century CE.
This literature is termed Śvetāmbara because its ācāryas consider it authentic. Digambara ācāryas do not consider it authentic in the same way, but it serves as a foundation for them as well, granting them similar respect.

Content and Literary Value:

This literature primarily deals with the conduct and practices of śramaṇas (ascetics). Some texts also discuss logic, philosophy, and various disciplines.
There is a strong emphasis on the characters of the śramaṇas. Their presentation is in a narrative style with evocative vocabulary, naturally imbuing the literature with literary merit.
Readers who study these texts for religious purposes also effortlessly gain literary enjoyment.
The roots of later literary forms like Prabandha (narrative poems), Khaṇḍakāvyas (short poems), story literature, Muktaka (independent verses), and songs can be found in these early works.

Key Figures and Concepts in Jain Literature:

The concept of Triṣaṣṭi Śalākā Puruṣas (Sixty-three Great Men) is well-established, comprising 24 Tīrthaṅkaras, 12 Cakravartis, 9 Baladevas, 9 Vāsudevas, and 9 Prativāsudevas.
Among these, Ṛṣabha, Nemi, Pārśvanātha, Mahāvīra, Padma, Rāma, Kṛṣṇa, and Rāvaṇa hold a special place in literature.
Besides the Śrutāṅgas, the Śvetāmbara tradition accepts 12 Upāṅgas, 6 Chedasūtras, 4 Mūlasūtras, 10 Prakīrṇakas, and 2 Pūraṇikās as Āgama texts. Commentaries and glosses have further expanded this literature.

Digambara Literature and Authenticity:

The Digambara tradition does not consider these Śvetāmbara works authentic. They believe the literature received by Mahāvīra's disciples and Kevalīs (omniscient beings) is completely destroyed. However, partial knowledge of that literature has been preserved in the monastic lineage.
Ācārya Dharsena is considered the first monk to possess knowledge of parts of the Pūrvas (ancient texts) that predated Mahāvīra. He imparted this knowledge to his two disciples, Puṣpadanta and Bhūtabali.
Based on this knowledge, these two monks composed the Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama Sūtra. This work, preserved on palm leaves in the Kannada script, was published in twenty-three parts with commentary and translation by Dr. Hiralal Jain.
The Digambara tradition considers this the most ancient and authoritative text. Scholars believe it to be a work from the 2nd century CE.
It is divided into four Anuyogas: Prathamanuyoga, Karaṇānuvoga, Caraṇānuvoga, and Dravyanuyoga.
Prathamanuyoga is significant from a literary perspective as it includes purāṇas (epics/histories), biographies, stories, and narratives.
Commentaries and glosses on these Anuyogas have extensively expanded their content. The Pāhuḍa series of texts are based on these Anuyogas, elaborating on their subject matter.

Literary Trends in Digambara Works:

Pāhuḍa Doha by Muni Rāmasiṁha contains 222 verses. Similar works by Indu, Paramārtha Prakāśa and Yogasāra, also show the roots of literary trends that appear in the compositions of later Hindi sants (saints).
Pāhuḍa Doha dismisses external rituals as futile, deeming true salvation to be in self-control and self-realization. It strongly criticizes outward displays of yogis and advocates seeing the body as a temple and the soul as Śiva, with sensory activities as divine energy.
Dr. Hiralal Jain aptly notes that in style, Pāhuḍa Doha shares similarities with Buddhist Dohakoshas and Caryapadas on one hand, and the utterances of saints like Kabir on the other. The depiction of the body and soul, or soul and the supreme soul, as beloved and lover (verses 99-100) is reminiscent of the Sufi poetic tradition.
Pāhuḍa Doha presents an excellent example of Jain Muktaka poetry. While not reaching the peak of aesthetic refinement, the expression of the individual is so impactful that these verses are considered high-quality poetry.

Jain Influence on Indian Literature:

Jain literature, like Sanskrit literature, possesses a rich source of devotional poetry. The praise of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras is an important part of the daily practices of Jain monks. While these praises have a ritualistic uniformity, they can be viewed as devotional Muktaka compositions, comparable in impact to Sanskrit devotional works or the later Hindi poetry of Tulsidas.
Charitra Kāvya (biographical poetry), also known as Prabandha or Mahākāvya, is a particularly developed genre in Jain literature.

The Ramayana Tradition in Jain Literature:

Vimalasūri's Padmacariu (Padma Charitra) is perhaps the most significant among the ancient Mahākāvyas in Indian literature. It is the oldest poetic work based on the Ramayana narrative, alongside Vālmīki's Ramayana, the Ramopakhyana in the Mahabharata, and some Buddhist Jataka tales.
In terms of Mahākāvya standards, only Vālmīki's Ramayana and Padmacariu are comparable.
The composition date of Padmacariu is placed between the 3rd and 7th centuries CE. Vālmīki's Ramayana lacks firm dating, with most scholars placing its development between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE.
Considering this, Padmacariu is the oldest preserved Mahākāvya based on the Ramayana narrative.
Western scholars have questioned the antiquity of Padmacariu based on its language, suggesting a 4th-century origin. Regardless, it indicates a distinct stream of Ramayana poetry different from Vālmīki's or the Buddhist versions.
Vimalasūri states that he is narrating a story received from preceding ācāryas, suggesting that the Jain Ramayana is contemporary with, or at least not derived from, the Sanskrit Ramayana.
Vimalasūri's Pauṁ Cariu in Prakrit, Raviṣeṇa's Padmacarita in Sanskrit, and his own Padmacariu in Apabhraṁśa are evidence of this tradition.

Parallel Ramayana Narratives:

A second trend views the story of Rama as that of one of the Triṣaṣṭi Śalākā Puruṣas, incorporating his narrative within purāṇas. The purāṇic storyline differs slightly from these Mahākāvyas. Pushpadanta's Uttara Purāṇa is noteworthy in this regard.
The Sanskrit Uttara Purāṇa also adopts a different narrative. The author raises the question of whether the source of these two types of narratives is the same or different.
A comparative study of Sanskrit Ramayanas, Jain Ramayanas, and Buddhist Ramas stories would be highly interesting to understand their origins and the gradual evolution of their narratives.

Krishna Literature and Other Biographies:

Krishna literature also holds a significant place in Jain literature, found in works called Harivaṁśapurāṇa in Sanskrit and Apabhraṁśa. Comparative studies of these narratives with other purāṇas could yield interesting conclusions, especially concerning their original sources and development.
Besides these two biographical works, the lives of other Triṣaṣṭi Śalākā Puruṣas are found in purāṇas and independent texts.
The verses, language, ornamentation, and emotional expression in all these Prabandhas are of a high literary standard.
Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan highly praised Vimalasūri's Pauṁ Cariu, stating it surpasses Tulsidas's Ramcharit Manas in poetic beauty. While no scholar has made such a direct comparison for Vimalasūri's work, the rural heroine-like charm in Prakrit is rare elsewhere. This work is considered unparalleled in its tenderness and sweetness. This composition served as a model for the structure of Hindi Prabandhas.

Geya Muktakas and Songs:

Besides Prabandhas, the tradition of Geya Muktakas (singable independent verses) and songs is also very rich in Jain literature.
Vajjālagga is a collection of such verses, comparable to Gatha Saptashati.
The development of songs can be seen in the later Apabhraṁśa period, indicating that Jain monks began to be drawn to Apabhraṁśa literature.
Phāgu Kāvya is rich in terms of ornamentation and sentiment, integrating elements of both song and narrative. Both these trends seem to have influenced Hindi literature.
The trend of Vajjālagga is preserved in Doha verses, with its peak development seen in Bihari Satsai. The trend of blending songs and narratives is found in many poets of the Krishna Bhakti tradition, with Tulsidas's Gitavali being an ideal example.

In essence, the text highlights the historical depth and literary richness of Jain literature, tracing its origins, canonization efforts, and the distinct contributions of the Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions. It emphasizes the value of Jain narratives, particularly in the context of the Ramayana and Krishna literature, and their influence on broader Indian literary traditions.