Jain Sahitya Me Arthik Gram Sangathan Se Sambandh Madhyakalin

This document, "Jain Sahitya me Arthik gram Sangathan se Sambandh Madhyakalin 'Mahattar', 'Mahattam' tatha 'Kutumbi'" by Dr. Mohanchand, explores the roles and evolution of key figures within the economic and social organization of villages during the medieval period, as depicted in Jain literature.

Early Concepts of 'Gram' (Village):

• The text begins by tracing the origin of the word 'gram' back to the Rigveda, where it signified a "group" or "community." In linguistic and musical contexts, this meaning persists. However, its modern usage refers to a geographical area with inhabitants and agricultural activities.
• During the Vedic period, 'gram' referred to organized, nomadic Aryan tribes. As they settled, the settled place also came to be known as 'gram.' Multiple 'grams' formed a 'janapada,' ruled by a 'raja.'
• The nomadic nature of early 'grams' is also mentioned, with 'gramani' being the leader of such mobile communities.

Evolution of Village Organization:

• To stabilize village structures and organize families ('kutumba' or 'kula'), the state, as seen in the Mahabharata and Kautilya's Arthashastra, played a role. Architectural planning for villages, forts, and janapadas gained importance.
• Initially, village organization was primarily a social construct based on lineage (gotra, kula, vansha, parivar). However, with the development of agriculture, villages became centers of economic production, leading to their increased significance in political administration.
• In later centuries, village organization became the backbone of a feudal economy, fostering self-sufficiency and becoming a source of political power. Some historians, like Pran Nath, interpret 'gram' not just as a village but as an "estate" responsible for taxes, though this view is debated by scholars like P.V. Kane.
• The text highlights that King Harsha recognized the importance of village heads ('mahattara') as national figures.

The Role of 'Mahattara' and 'Mahattama':

• The term 'mahattara' is derived from 'mahat' (great) with the suffix 'tara,' implying superiority over someone or something else. The Agni Purana describes a 'mahattara' as presiding over five 'kutumbis' (family heads), indicating a hierarchical structure.
• While the Ramayana indirectly refers to 'mahattaras' from the Shudra caste, and mentions of 'mahattara' in the Mahabharata are debated by scholars. Katyayana states that a 'mahattara' was a respected village elder who resolved disputes.
• Historians suggest that 'mahattara' was not necessarily a king-appointed administrative officer but often a respected, wealthy, and educated village leader. The Agni Purana's description of a 'mahattara' overseeing five 'kutumbis' points to a well-organized village system.
• Jain literature provides several references to 'mahattara' as a village organization official. The Brihatkalpa Bhashya mentions 'mahattaras' alongside other state officials during festivals, indicating their administrative importance and the existence of an 'anumahattara' (assistant mahattara).
• Dr. Jagdish Chandra Jain notes the existence of both 'gram mahattara' (village mahattara) and 'rashtra mahattara' (national mahattara). The latter is sometimes equated with the term 'Rathod' or 'Rattakuta.'
• The term 'mahattara' evolved over time. By the 9th century CE, 'mahattama' began to replace 'mahattara' in epigraphic records, possibly due to the introduction of the 'uttama' position and a desire for greater distinction.
• The text discusses various linguistic forms and modern descendants of 'mahattara,' such as 'Mahato,' 'Mehta,' 'Mahatva,' 'Mahotra,' 'Mehrotra,' and 'Mehter.' These roles were held by individuals from various castes, including Brahmins, Vaishyas, Kayasthas, and Shudras. However, the growing influence of the 'das pratha' (slave system) led to Shudras dominating agricultural villages, and consequently, 'mahattaras' were often Shudras, leading to a devaluation of their position.
• The Arthashastra uses 'gramakuta' for the village head, which later evolved into 'mahattara.' Hemachandra's Deshinamama Mala highlights the administrative significance of 'mahattara' and its Prakrit forms like 'maiher' or 'mehr,' referring to a village head.

The Role of 'Kutumbi':

• The term 'kutumbi' is considered grammatically non-Vedic and non-Paninian. It likely originated from Prakrit words like 'kodiyo' or 'kodiya,' signifying family or household.
• While Vedic literature, such as the Chandogya Upanishad, uses 'kutumbi' to denote family or household, its specific meaning in relation to individuals is less clear. The Matsya Purana and Vayu Purana use 'kutumbi' as an adjective for Brahmins and as a descriptor for lineage founders, respectively.
• Kautilya's Arthashastra discusses 'kutumbis' in the context of fort construction and land allocation, with interpretations ranging from householders and laborers to urban dwellers.
• Jain Agam texts, like the Kalpasutra, provide significant insights into 'kutumbi.' The establishment of the 'kautika' or 'kodiya' gana by Sutthiya, a successor of Mahavir, and its subsequent division into four branches, including the 'vani ya' or 'vanijya' clan, highlights the social organization of 'kutumbis.'
• The Kalpasutra and Aupapātikā Sūtra mention 'kaudumbiya' or 'kautumbika' alongside administrative officials like 'māḍambiya' and 'talavara,' suggesting their administrative role. A commentary on the Kalpasutra equates 'koudumbiya' with 'avalagaka' or 'gram-mahattara,' indicating their function as village heads responsible for collecting revenue.
• The 'avalagaka' was appointed by the king and was considered a significant figure in village administration. The concept of 'avalagana' (gift offering) also became prevalent in the medieval economy.
• Lexicographers like Amarakosha did not initially include 'kutumbi' as a synonym for farmer. However, Halayudha Kosha in the 10th century CE and Hemachandra later included 'kutumbi' as a synonym for farmer.
• Hemachandra's Deshinamama Mala links 'kutumbi' to Prakrit words like 'kuduchiyam' (sexual intercourse) and 'kodiyo,' the latter described as a village usurper who incites conflict.
• Bana's Harshacharita portrays 'kutumbis' as administrative officials, similar to village heads and 'mahattaras.' They were also seen as trusted individuals responsible for the king's provisions during his campaigns.
• Katyayana considers 'kutumbis' like widows and the weak as part of the 'rajabala' (royal force) and emphasizes their protection. Somadeva's Nitivakyāmṛta describes 'kutumbis' as "seed-eaters" and suggests a dismissive attitude towards them, though also instructing the king to support those facing financial hardship. This suggests that while they held administrative roles, their social prestige declined due to feudal exploitation.
• The text emphasizes that 'kutumbis' likely represented a class of prosperous farmers who later became landlords.
• In the 12th century CE, with the peak of feudal economy, 'kutumbis' were sometimes seen as subordinate to feudal lords and armies.
• While linguistically 'kutumbi' can be connected to 'farmer,' in practical usage, they were trusted royal servants assisting the king.
• Professor R.S. Sharma suggests that medieval 'kutumbis' are ancestors of modern peasant communities like the 'Kurmis' of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and 'Kunbis' of Maharashtra. The upward mobility of Shudras into agriculture and the blurring of distinctions between Vaishyas and Shudras contributed to this association.
• The text also touches upon the social history of Jain communities in South India, noting their traditional classification as 'Pancham' (fifth) by Brahmins, possibly due to their anti-caste stance in early Jainism. The influence of the Virashaiva/Lingayat sect on these Jain communities is also mentioned.
• The administrative role of 'kutumbi' as a bridge between the king and farmers is highlighted. Their position was often subordinate to 'mahattama' or 'mahattara.' The decline in their social status led to other groups, like landlords, taking over their administrative functions.
• It is noted that 'kutumbis' were predominantly Shudras, although Brahmin 'kutumbis' also existed.

Conclusion:

The document concludes by stating that the terms 'mahattara,' 'mahattama,' and 'kutumbi' represent important figures in the medieval Indian village organization, deeply intertwined with the economic and political structures of the time. Their roles evolved from primarily social to increasingly administrative and economic, reflecting the broader socio-economic changes of the period, particularly the rise of feudalism. The analysis draws upon a wide range of Jain and non-Jain literary and epigraphic sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of these crucial medieval village functionaries.