Jain Sahitya Ka Bruhad Itihas Prastavana - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, focusing on the key points discussed in the "Prastavana" (Introduction) of "Jain Sahitya ka Bruhad Itihas":

Book Title: Jain Sahitya ka Bruhad Itihas Prastavana (Introduction to the Grand History of Jain Literature) Author: Dalsukh Malvania Publisher: L D Indology, Ahmedabad

This introductory section lays the groundwork for a multi-volume history of Jain literature, aiming to provide a comprehensive overview of writings by Jain authors. The author, Dalsukh Malvania, outlines the scope, methodology, and historical context of this ambitious project.

I. Scope and Limitations of the History:

Comprehensive Coverage: The history will encompass all literature written by Jains, not just that related to Jain religion or philosophy.
Addressing Neglect: A primary motivation for this work is the historical neglect of Jain literature within the broader history of Indian literature. Examples are given of how Sanskrit literature histories often overlook Jain contributions to genres like Puranas and epic poems.
Methodological Challenge: Historians tend to focus on well-studied and widely read texts. Texts like Dhanpal's "Tilakamanjari," though valuable, are often neglected because they are not standard curriculum. The author acknowledges that it's impossible for a historian to personally read and evaluate every single text.
Collaborative Approach: To overcome the limitations, the plan was to involve multiple scholars. While deep critical analysis might not be possible for every topic, a general introduction to subjects and their related works will be provided, enabling interested scholars to delve deeper.
Origin of the Plan: The idea for this history was conceived at a meeting of Orientalists in Ahmedabad in 1953, with key suggestions from Dr. A. N. Upadhye. A preliminary plan was drafted in Varanasi and finalized with consultations from prominent scholars like Muni Punyavijayji, Acharya Jinavijayji, Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi, Pt. Bechardasji Doshi, and Dr. Vasudevsharan Agrawal, among others.
Editorial Decisions: Some contributors to the project were unable to submit their parts, necessitating their assignment to others. However, the original plan was largely adhered to.
First Volume's Content: The first volume introduces the Angas (core Jain scriptures). The author was initially meant to write this, but due to Pt. Bechardasji's expertise and prior lectures on the Angas, the task was entrusted to Dr. Mohanlal Mehta, who wrote it based on Pt. Bechardasji's lectures.

II. Vedic Dharma and Jain Dharma: A Comparative Overview:

This section delves into a critical comparison between Vedic and Jain traditions, highlighting significant distinctions:

Moral and Spiritual Sophistication: Jainism, as represented in its ancient literature, is presented as more spiritually refined than Vedic religion as found in the Vedas.
Nature of Deities: Vedic deities (Indra, etc.) are depicted as more powerful than humans but morally inferior, prone to human emotions like anger, attachment, and hatred. Jain objects of worship, conversely, are described as devoid of these passions ( वीतराग - Vitaraaga).
Basis of Worship: Vedic deities are worshipped for their power to bestow favors or inflict punishment, not for spiritual merit. Jain objects of worship are revered for their Vitaraaga (passionless) nature, inspiring respect and devotion in the worshippers. Fear, not spiritual inclination, is the motivator for Vedic worship.
Concept of "Bhudevas" (Earthly Gods/Brahmins): While Vedic tradition conceived of "Bhudevas" who, over time, became self-serving and focused on protecting their priestly status, Jainism envisions "Bhudevas" as passionless humans. They have no need to earn a livelihood through rituals.
Rituals and Ahimsa (Non-violence): Vedic rituals, especially sacrifices, often involved violence or animal slaughter. Jain rituals, in contrast, emphasize penance, fasting, and meditation, which are inherently non-violent.
Purpose of Religious Practices: Vedic rituals aim to appease deities. Jain practices are directed towards the self-improvement and spiritual elevation of the individual, with no concept of pleasing external deities who are themselves passionless and beyond pleasure or displeasure.
Concept of Deities and Humanity: Vedic religion posited various deities distinct from humans, who were objects of worship. Jainism, while acknowledging deities, emphasizes that even they are not universally objects of worship for spiritual progress. Only Vitaraaga humans are truly worthy of worship, and even deities serve such humans. Jainism elevates humanity over deities.
Creation and Governance of the Universe: Vedic belief in a creator or controller of the universe is contrasted with the Jain principle that the universe is eternal and governed by the karma of sentient beings.
Monism vs. Pluralism: Vedic thought often points towards a single underlying principle of the universe, though interpretations vary. Jainism asserts that the universe is a combination of multiple eternal elements.
Evolution of Vedic Religion: The Brahmana period saw a shift from the importance of deities to the primacy of sacrifice. Priests gained dominance, making sacrifices dependent on their rituals and mantras. Jainism, however, offered a path to spiritual guidance and leadership regardless of social standing (even for Shudras).
Gender Equality: In Jainism, men and women had equal rights in spiritual practice and could attain liberation.
Language and Scriptural Preservation: Vedic tradition valued the Sanskrit language and its mantras, leading to the preservation of words but not necessarily their meaning. Jainism, by contrast, embraced Prakrit, the vernacular, recognizing the importance of meaning over words. While Sanskrit remained static, Prakrit evolved.
Social Hierarchy and Leadership: Vedic religion saw the clear dominance of Brahmins. Jainism, from its inception, was led by Kshatriyas. In the Upanishadic period, Kshatriyas also asserted intellectual leadership in the realm of self-knowledge, challenging Brahmin dominance.
Jainism as an Independent Religion: Early Western scholars considered Jainism a revolutionary new religion or a branch of Buddhism opposing Vedic Dharma. However, deeper study of their respective literatures revealed Jainism to be an independent religion, not a branch of Vedic Dharma. The author notes that some contemporary Indian scholars still follow outdated Western theories.
Jainism and the Aryans: It is suggested that Jainism might represent a developed form of the indigenous Indian culture encountered by Aryans upon their arrival in India, rather than a religion that evolved solely from Vedic opposition. The fact that Jains were considered atheists and "Veda-denouncers" underscores their independence from Vedic authority.
Influence of Eastern Indian Culture: The author posits that as Aryans moved eastward, they became more spiritual, influenced by the cultured populations of Eastern India. This influence is seen in the Upanishads, which, while diverging from some Vedic beliefs, were integrated into the Vedic fold. Jainism, originating from Eastern India, is seen as a catalyst for this shift towards non-violence and spirituality.
Pre-Vedic Indian Culture: Modern Western scholarship, influenced by archaeological findings like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, now recognizes a significant Indian culture predating the Vedas. This has led to a re-evaluation, with many scholars now concluding that Jainism is independent of Vedic Dharma.

III. Ancient Ascetics: Yatis, Munis, and Shramanas:

Connection to Indus Valley Civilization: Archaeological evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro) suggests the presence of a culture that valued yoga. This contrasts with Vedic Aryans and the Brahmanical period, where sacrifices were prioritized. The opposition to sacrifice and emphasis on yoga in Jain and Buddhist traditions lead to the suggestion of a link between Jainism and this ancient Indian culture.
Terminology and Identity: The text explores the possibility that terms like "Yati" and "Muni," used by Vedic Aryans to describe the people they fought (Dasas, Dasyus), actually refer to the indigenous inhabitants. The reverence for "Yati" and "Muni" in Jainism suggests a connection.
Shramana Tradition: Jainism is placed within the broader Shramana tradition, which is seen as distinct from the Brahmana tradition. The Shramanas are characterized by their practices of penance and yoga.
Historical Opposition: Vedic texts, like the Atharvaveda, mention Indra killing Yatis and Munis, and Patanjali's Mahabhashya highlights the eternal conflict between Shramanas and Brahmanas.
Nigranthas: The text identifies the Nigrantha (unfettered) Shramanas as followers of Jainism. Their presence is noted in Buddhist texts.

IV. The Tradition of Tirthankaras:

Cyclical Time: Jain cosmology divides time into ascending (Utsarpini) and descending (Avsarpini) cycles, each with six stages. The current era is descending.
Tirthankara Figures: Each cycle features 24 Tirthankaras, who are spiritual leaders. The current era has had 24, with Rishabhadeva as the first and Mahavira as the last.
Rishabhadeva's Antiquity: Rishabhadeva's time is considered so ancient that it falls outside known Indian historical periods. His narrative is found in Jain Puranas.
Early Societal Depiction: Rishabhadeva's era is described as a nascent stage of civilization, lacking kings, formal education, agriculture, and weaponry. Social customs, like sibling relationships functioning as marital ones for procreation, are depicted, suggesting Rishabhadeva played a role in civilizing society.
Comparison with Vedic Society: The Yam-Yami dialogue in the Rigveda, where Yami desires intercourse with her brother Yam, hints at a past societal acceptance of such relationships, but also an emerging disapproval. The Rigvedic society is seen as more advanced than Rishabhadeva's depicted society, with agriculture already established. This places Rishabhadeva's time even before the Rigveda.
Parallels with Buddhism: Similar narratives of societal development and decline are found in Buddhist texts, like the Chakravartin Sutta and Aggajja Sutta, highlighting parallels in the cyclical view of history and societal structures.
Integration into Vedic Tradition: Rishabhadeva's character was influential enough to be recognized in Hindu Puranas as an avatar of Vishnu, indicating his broad impact and recognition, even if considered "Veda-opposing" by some. His practice of penance, rather than Vedic sacrifice, reinforces his connection to the Shramana tradition.
Potential Syncretism: The author mentions Pt. Kailashchandra's speculation about the integration of Shiva and Rishabha, suggesting a possible shared origin in a common tradition, though this is not universally accepted.
Presence in Vedas: Dr. Radhakrishnan's claim of Rishabha, Ajitnatha, and Arishtanemi being mentioned in the Yajurveda is noted, though disputed by Dr. Schubring. Further research is deemed necessary.
Composite Naming: There's a scholarly view that the names of the 24 Tirthankaras might have been adopted from prominent historical figures revered by various communities who later embraced Jainism. However, the author clarifies that these figures were champions of compassion, penance, and spiritual practice, not of violent rituals.
Historical Figures and Tirthankaras: While many Tirthankara traditions are Puranic, some figures appear in non-Jain scriptures with similar names or concepts.
Buddha's References to Tirthankaras: The Anguttara Nikaya mentions seven past Tirthankaras, including "Arka" (Arhat), whose teachings emphasized the transience of life and the need for righteous conduct. This teaching resonates with similar messages in Jain texts like the Uttaradhyayana.
Age and Suffering: Buddha described Arka's era as one where human lifespans were 60,000 years, and suffering was limited to basic bodily needs. Despite this long life, the emphasis was on the impermanence of life and the inherent suffering within it.
Arka and Arhat: The text explores the potential connection between Buddha's Arka and the 18th Jain Tirthankara, Arhat. Differences in their described lifespans are noted, but a shared ancient, great personality is acknowledged.
Aranemi and Ajita: Parallels are drawn between Buddha's mention of Aranemi and the Jain Tirthankara Aranemi, as well as between a Buddhist Ajita Thera and the Jain Tirthankara Ajita.
Nigrantha Nataputta and Mahavira: The text confirms the widely accepted identification of Nigrantha Nataputta in Buddhist texts with Lord Mahavira.
Pārśvanātha and Chatur-yama: The mention of Mahavira preaching "Chaturyama" (four vows) in Buddhist texts is interpreted as a possible misattribution of Pārśvanātha's original teachings of Chatur-yama, which Mahavira later expanded into the Pancha-maha-vratas (five great vows). This strengthens the evidence for Pārśvanātha's existence.
Mahabharata and Tirthankara Names: Names like Suparshva, Chandra, and Sumati appearing in the Mahabharata as Asuras are noted as potentially linked to Tirthankara names, especially given the mythological context of Arhats teaching the Dharma primarily to Asuras. This suggests a potential "Veda-opposing" aspect of Jainism from a Vedic-Puranic perspective.
Shared Names with Vishnu and Shiva: Names like Shreyas, Ananta, Dharma, Shanti, and Sambhava are found as names of both Vishnu and Jain Tirthankaras, indicating a possible attempt by Puranic tradition to equate these figures with major deities. Similarly, names like Ananta, Dharma, Ajita, and Rishabha appear in both the thousand-name lists of Shiva and as Tirthankara names.
Shanti: The name "Shanti" is also associated with an Indra and a sage in the Mahabharata, raising questions about its potential connection to the Jain Tirthankara Shanti.
Munisuvrata: The name Munisuvrata might imply "Suvrata" as an epithet, and "Suvrata" is also a name for Vishnu and Shiva.

V. Classification of Agamas:

Agama Categories: The text presents the recognized categories of Jain Agamas (canonical scriptures) according to the Shvetambara tradition:
- 11 Angas: Accepted by all Shvetambara sects (Ayar, Suyagada, Thana, Samavaya, Viyahapannatti, Naya-dhamma-kaha, Uvasaga-dasa, Antagad-dasa, Anuttarovavaiya-dasa, Panha-vagaranani, Vivaga-suyam).
- 12 Upangas: Accepted by all three Shvetambara sects (Uvavaiyam, Rayapasenaijam, Jivajivabhigama, Pannavanam, Surapannatti, Jambudvippa-pannatti, Chandapannatti, Nirayavaliyasuyakkhandham with its subdivisions).
- 10 Prakirnakas: Accepted by the Shvetambara Murti-pujaka sect (Chatusarana, Paurapachchakkhanani, Bhattaparignna, Samthara, Tandulaveyaliam, Chandavejjhayagam, Devindatthayam, Ganividya, Mahapachchakkhanani, Viratthayam).
- 6 Chhedas: (Ayar-dasa or Dasa, Kappam, Vevaharam, Nisiha, Mahanisiha, Jiyakappam). The last two are not accepted by Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi.
- 2 Chulikasutras: (Nandi, Anuyogadara).
- 4 Mulasutras: (Uttarajjhaya, Dasaveyalia, Shravassaya, Pindaniyutti). The last two are not accepted by Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi.
Variations in Lists: The author acknowledges variations in names and the inclusion/exclusion of certain texts within these categories.
The "Gani-pitaka": The term "Gani-pitaka" is identified as the collective body of the 12 Angas, composed by the Ganadharas (disciples of Mahavira).
Angas as Primary: The 12 Angas are considered the foundational Agamas.
"Anga" vs. Vedanga: The term "Anga" in Jainism signifies primary, core scriptures, unlike "Vedanga" in Vedic literature, which refers to auxiliary texts.
Evolution of Agamas: The number of Agamas grew over time, with additions of works by other enlightened beings and commentaries.
Early Classification: The earliest classification was "Anga" and "Angabahya" (outside the Angas).
"Upaanga" and "Prakirnaka": These terms emerged to categorize the Angabahya texts.
Chronological Development of Categories: The classification system evolved over time, with "Anga" and "Angabahya" being the initial division, followed by the emergence of "Upaanga" and "Prakirnaka."
"Chheda" and "Mula" Sutras: The distinction between "Chheda" and "Mula" sutras also developed, with some texts being categorized differently by various sub-sects.
"Agama" as a Broader Term: The term "Agama" came to be used broadly for scripture, while "Shruta" or "Samyak Shruta" was more ancient.
Number of Agamas: The number of accepted Agamas varies among Shvetambara sects (45 in Murti-pujaka, 32 in Sthanakavasi and Terapanthi) and historically among Digambaras.
Chronological Basis of Classification: The author stresses that the current classification system reflects a historical evolution and that the exact origin of each classification is not definitively known.
Number of Tirthankaras: The text notes that while the number of Tirthankaras is presented, the actual historical dating of most of them is challenging.
Scriptural Transmission: The method of oral transmission and composition by Ganadharas from Mahavira's teachings is emphasized.

VI. Quantity of Available Agamas and Their Commentaries:

Vastness of Literature: This section details the extensive nature of Jain Agamas and their commentaries, providing numerical estimates of verses or chapters for many texts.
Focus on Commentaries: The extensive listing of commentaries indicates the significant scholarly effort dedicated to preserving and interpreting the Agamas.
Popularity of Certain Texts: The large number of commentaries on texts like Uttaradhyayana, Dasavaikalika, Kalpasutra, and Avasyaka Sutra points to their particular importance and widespread study. The rise in popularity of Kalpasutra is attributed to its recitation during Paryushana.

VII. Chronology of Agamas:

Authorship vs. Compilation: Modern scholars generally agree that while texts like the Agamas were compiled and organized by figures like Devardhi Gani Kshamashramana, he was not their original author. The Agamas themselves are ancient.
Dating Challenges: Determining the precise chronology of Agamas is complex. Acknowledging interpolations, scholars often date the core Anga Agamas to the period of the Pataliputra council (around the 4th century BCE), with the earliest parts potentially dating to the late 4th to early 3rd century BCE.
The Pataliputra Council: This event, occurring in the 6th century after Mahavira's demise (estimated as the 4th century BCE), is seen as a significant point for the codification and preservation of the Angas, albeit with the possibility of some additions.
Valabhi Council: The writing down of the Agamas in Valabhi (around 453 or 466 CE) is considered the final stage of this process, including any additions or interpolations.
Distinguishing Composition and Transcription: The author cautions against conflating the date of transcription with the original composition date, a common error when dealing with manuscripts.
Shruta (Oral Tradition): Both Vedic and Jain traditions emphasize Shruta (heard knowledge or oral tradition). The dating of Vedic literature and Jain Agamas should employ similar principles.
Angabahya Texts: The dating of Angabahya texts (those outside the main Angas) is approached like the dating of any other scholarly work, based on their authors.
Specific Text Dating:
- Prajnapana: Attributed to Prajushyam, dated to 335-376 BCE (after the Vira Nirvana era).
- Prakriti-based Texts (Surya, Chandra, Jambudvipa Prajnapti): Considered ancient, predating the Shvetambara-Digambara split. Their astronomical discussions resemble Vedic Vedangas, suggesting a pre-Vikram era dating.
- Chheda Sutras (Dasha, Brihat Kalpa, Vyavahara): Attributed to Bhadrabahu (c. 357 BCE), indicating an early date for these texts.
- Nishitha: Considered a Chulika of Achara, with early Prakrit commentaries suggesting an ancient origin.
- Jita Kalpa: A work by Acharya Jinabhadr, dating to around 606 CE.
- Mahanishitha: Its current version is attributed to Acharya Haribhadra (700-800 CE).
- Dasavaikalika: Composed by Acharya Shayyambhav (452-426 BCE), a contemporary of Mahavira.
- Uttaradhyayana: A compilation, not by a single author, with an estimated dating of 3rd-4th century BCE.
- Avasyaka Sutra: As ancient as the Angas, with daily ritualistic content. Its importance is underscored by its mention alongside the Angas as studied from the beginning.
- Pinda-niyukti: A commentary on Dasavaikalika by Acharya Bhadrabahu (possibly the second), placing it around the 5th century CE.
- Nandi Sutra: Attributed to Devavachaka, dating to the 5th-6th century CE.
- Anuyogadvara: Its author is uncertain, but it's a commentary on Avasyaka Sutra, dating possibly before the Vikram era.
- Prakirnakas (Chatusarana, Paurapachchakkhanani, Bhattaparignna): Attributed to Virabhadra (651 CE).
- Gachchhayara: Later than Mahanishitha, Kalpa, and Vyavahara.

VIII. The Question of Agama Disruption (Agama-vichchheda):

Two Views on Disruption: There are two main perspectives: that the sutras themselves have been lost, or that the lineage of their holders (Sutadharas) has been broken.
Digambara Perspective: Dhavala and Jayadhvala texts primarily discuss the disruption of Sutadharas, implying the loss of oral knowledge. However, modern Digambaras seem to interpret this as the disruption of the sutras themselves.
Importance of Oral Tradition: The emphasis on oral tradition (Guru-mukh) over written texts (Potthakammi) highlights the value placed on the memory of learned individuals.
Evidence of Written Agamas: The Anuyogadvara Sutra provides evidence that Agamas were written down even in ancient times.
"Potthakammi" and "Patrakalikhitam": These terms refer to written texts, indicating that Agamas existed in written form.
Guru-Shishya Tradition: The importance of receiving knowledge directly from a guru, with their permission, and the potential invalidity of "stolen" knowledge or knowledge solely from books, is emphasized. This practice continued until at least the time of Jinabhadr.
Dating and Authority: Knowledge acquired through the guru-shishya tradition was considered more authoritative than that obtained solely from books.
The Concept of "Srutas" and "Srutadharas": The ongoing discussion revolves around the decline and potential loss of the complete body of knowledge (Srutadharas) rather than just the physical texts.
Tittothgali Prakirnaka: This text details a sequential loss of Agamas, attributing it to specific time periods and ascetics.
Jain and Buddhist Parallels: The discussion of scriptural disruption is compared to similar discussions in Buddhist texts, suggesting a common characteristic of Shramana traditions.
Digambara View on Partial Loss: The Dhavala text suggests that while complete knowledge might have been lost, partial knowledge of Angas and Purvas was preserved through lineage.
Tiloyapannatti: This text also discusses scriptural disruption, with a predicted complete disruption of the "Shruta-tirtha" in a distant future.
Shvetambara Preservation Efforts: The author suggests that Shvetambaras may have made efforts to preserve a significant portion of the Angas, even if some parts were lost or interpolated.
Critique of Kailashchandra's View: The author refutes Pt. Kailashchandra's claim that the knowledge of Angas was completely lost 683 years after Mahavira's nirvana, deeming it unsubstantiated and contrary to other Digambara texts.
The "Public" Nature of Anga Knowledge: The author questions Pt. Kailashchandra's assertion that Anga knowledge became "public" in Shvetambara tradition while remaining in a guru-shishya lineage in Digambara tradition. The evidence suggests the guru-shishya method was valued in both traditions.

IX. Srutavatar (Descent/Transmission of Knowledge):

Shared Understanding: Both Shvetambara and Digambara traditions generally agree that Mahavira and other Tirthankaras conveyed the meaning of the teachings, while the sutras (words) were formulated by their Ganadharas.
Anuyogadvara's Account: This text describes a three-fold transmission of knowledge: Atmagama (self-originated), Anantagama (endless transmission), and Paramparagama (lineage transmission).
Ganadharas as Authors of Sutras: The consensus among ancient scholars like Pujyapada, Akalanka, and Vidyānanda (Digambara) is that all Ganadharas, not just Gautama, were involved in composing the sutras.
Critique of Kailashchandra's View: The author refutes Kailashchandra's claim of finding no specific Ganadhar named as the author of the Angas in Shvetambara tradition, citing references that clearly mention Gautama and other Ganadharas as speakers of the sutras.
"Public" vs. "Lineage" Transmission: The author disputes Kailashchandra's distinction between a "public" transmission of Anga knowledge in Shvetambara tradition and a strict guru-shishya lineage in Digambara tradition, arguing that the guru-shishya method was important in both.
"Sakal Shruta" (Complete Knowledge): The concept of "Sakal Shruta" (complete knowledge of all Angas and Purvas) being passed down through lineages is discussed, with evidence suggesting widespread knowledge among scholars.
The Role of Munis: The text concludes by emphasizing that the shared understanding among ancient traditions is that all Ganadharas composed sutras and transmitted knowledge to many disciples. Therefore, claims of fundamental differences in this regard are considered baseless.

In essence, this extensive introduction by Dalsukh Malvania sets a scholarly tone for the "Grand History of Jain Literature," highlighting the critical need to acknowledge and study Jain writings, examining their historical context, and establishing a framework for understanding their complex development and transmission.