Jain Parampara Ka Sanskrutik Mulyankan

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Jain Parampara ka Sanskrutik Mulyankan" by Moreshwar Paradkar:

This work, "Jain Parampara ka Sanskrutik Mulyankan" (A Cultural Evaluation of the Jain Tradition), by Moreshwar Paradkar, examines the significant contributions of Jainism and its followers to Indian culture.

The text begins by contextualizing the rise of Jainism within the broader landscape of Indian intellectual history. It highlights the profound ideological shifts in India during the latter part of the Vedic period, particularly influenced by the Upanishads. This era saw a questioning of ritualistic practices and the authority of the Vedas, leading to widespread discontent with existing life philosophies. In this environment of intellectual ferment, various Shraman (ascetic) traditions emerged as alternatives to Vedic ritualism. These included the Ajivikas founded by Nanda Vatsa, the fatalistic Ajivikas of Makkhali Gosala, the materialistic Ajivikas of Ajita Kesakambali, the eternalism of Pakudha Katyayana, and the skepticism of Sanjaya Belatthiputta. Alongside these, numerous ascetics, renunciates, and those practicing extreme forms of asceticism were influencing the public through their emphasis on mortification of the body. It is against this backdrop of intellectual churning that the philosophies of Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha are considered to be of significant importance.

The Jain tradition asserts its extreme antiquity, with claims of Jain Tirthankaras (ford-makers) being mentioned in Vedic literature. The Tirthankaras are the spiritual guides who propagate Jainism through successive eras. The text lists the twenty-four Tirthankaras, culminating with Vardhamana Mahavira. The first Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva, had sons Bharat (a Chakravarti Emperor) and Bahubali, whose conflict over kingdom and honor, devoid of violence, is seen by Jains as the first "Mahabharata," foreshadowing the later, violent conflict of the Kauravas and Pandavas.

The 23rd Tirthankara, Parshva, who lived 250 years before Mahavira, is credited with establishing the "Chaturyama Dharma" (Four-fold Vow) of truth, non-violence, non-stealing, and chastity. These vows are defined as abstaining from all falsehood, all violence, all stealing, and all illicit possession. Lord Mahavira (Vardhamana), by adding the principle of aparigraha (non-possession) to these four, established the five Mahavratas (Great Vows). Mahavira, having achieved complete victory over his senses, came to be known as "Jina" (conqueror), and his followers as "Jains."

Lord Mahavira renounced worldly possessions and lived as a Digambara (sky-clad) ascetic for twelve years, traveling across India. He propounded the idea that freedom from karma can be achieved through self-affliction, fasting, study, and contemplation. His path to liberation (Kevala Jnana) did not require acceptance of Vedic authority or elaborate rituals. As the public was weary of ritualistic excesses, Mahavira's emphasis on the five Mahavratas resonated with them. Recognizing that the strict observance of these five vows was only feasible for ascetics, Mahavira introduced the concept of Anuvratas (minor vows) for lay followers, making Jainism accessible to the common people. This farsighted approach, while retaining the core principles of restraint and asceticism, allowed for a more practical application of these principles in daily life. For instance, the vow against illicit sexual relations replaced the stricter vow of celibacy for lay followers, and the accumulation of wealth was permitted within limits, with an emphasis on control. This adaptability played a crucial role in attracting people to Jainism.

Jainism actively opposed the caste system and adopted local languages like Prakrit for propagation, thereby reaching a wider audience. By enforcing ethical discipline and providing a broader interpretation of the law of karma, Jainism effectively guided society towards righteousness, a significant contribution to its cultural impact.

The fundamental tenets of Jainism are Samyak Darshan (Right Faith), Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge), and Samyak Charitra (Right Conduct), collectively known as the Ratnatraya (Three Jewels). The path to liberation (Moksha) is defined by these three. Right Faith involves unwavering belief in the truths described by the faultless and omniscient Tirthankaras. Right Knowledge entails complete understanding of the seven tattvas (essences) propounded by the Tirthankaras: jiva (soul), ajiva (non-soul), asrava (influx of karma), bandha (bondage of karma), samvara (stoppage of karma), nirjara (shedding of karma), and moksha (liberation). Right Conduct involves acting in accordance with this Right Faith and Knowledge. Through the observance of the five Anuvratas and the avoidance of attachment in worldly activities, one cultivates a conducive state for achieving liberation. For ascetics, the observance of the five Mahavratas leads to Kevala Jnana (omniscience) and liberation.

Mahavira's teachings were preserved through an oral tradition by his disciples, compiled into fourteen Purvas. Bhadrabahu, the last in this line of disciples, migrated to South India with his followers during a severe twelve-year famine in the Mauryan period. This migration eventually led to the divergence of the Digambara and Shvetambara sects due to differences in practices. After Bhadrabahu's demise, the original tradition of the Digambara sect is considered to have been lost. At the council held in Pataliputra by Acharya Sthulabhadra, twelve Angas (scriptural divisions) were compiled based on the memories of elders, but these were accepted only by the Shvetambaras. Gradually, even this oral tradition began to fade. Consequently, at the religious council held in Valabhi in 512 CE under the presidency of Devardhigani, 45 Jain Agamas (scriptures) were established. Devardhigani, in his Nandisutra, classified 72 religious texts, including 12 Angapravishta, 6 Avashyaka, 31 Chhedasutra, and 26 Mulasutra. Western scholar Dr. Buhler's classification includes 11 Angas, 12 Upangas, 6 Chhedasutras, and 4 Mulasutras, along with Devardhigani's Nandisutra and Anu-yogadvara. However, the acceptance of these as authoritative is primarily by the Shvetambaras. Further divisions occurred within the Shvetambaras, leading to the formation of Murtipujakas (idol worshippers) and Sthanakavasis. Shvetambara doctrine states that only ascetics (male and female) are eligible for liberation.

The Digambara sect accepts the twelve Angas as authoritative, the twelfth being the Drishtivada, which includes remnants of the fourteen Purvas that survived until the Pataliputra council. The first part of Drishtivada contains texts like Chandraprajnapti, Suryaprajnapti, and Jambudvipaprajnapti. In addition to the Angas, the Digambaras also include 74 Angabahya (external) texts. Within the Digambara sect, there are further divisions such as Chaturtha, Panchama, and Terapanthi. The text also clarifies the monastic path: ascetics who attain omniscience do not eat. A female ascetic seeking liberation must attain a male birth through righteous conduct and penance to become an ascetic. Lay followers (Shravaka and Shravika) also cannot attain liberation without becoming ascetics. The Shvetambara sect appears to have a more liberal outlook on this matter.

Jain scriptures describe five types of right knowledge: Mati (sense perception), Shruta (scriptural knowledge), Avadhi (clairvoyance), Manahparyaya (telepathy), and Kevala (omniscience). Mati Jnana arises from sensory contact after the destruction of obstructing karma. Shruta Jnana is derived from studying scriptures after Mati Jnana. Avadhi Jnana is knowledge that arises through the substance, place, time, and mode, with its own limitations, after the development of right faith and conduct. Manahparyaya Jnana is the ability to understand the mental activities of others after the removal of obstacles like envy. Kevala Jnana, achieved through rigorous penance, is complete and unobstructed knowledge of all things, attained only by Arhats, Siddhas, and Tirthankaras.

Through the worship of knowledge and conduct, Jain followers have made indelible contributions to literature. Digambara scholars, in later periods, compiled new religious texts to replace the lost Agamas, granting them authority akin to the Vedas. These are categorized into four Anuyogas: Prathamanuyoga (narrative), Karananuyoga (cosmology/mathematics), Dravyanuyoga (philosophy), and Chayananuyoga (conduct). Chayananuyoga includes works like Vattakera's Mulachara and Samantabhadra's Ratnakarakanda Shravakachara, which discuss religious laws and practices. Dravyanuyoga is primarily philosophical, featuring the works of Kundakundacharya and Umashvami's Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, along with Samantabhadra's Aptamimamsa. Karananuyoga includes texts like Suryaprajnapti and Chandraprajnapti, which attempt to unravel the mysteries of creation. Prathamanuyoga encompasses Puranic texts that skillfully blend poetry and history.

In Vedic culture, Puranas are linked with history, as evidenced by the phrase "Itihasa Puranam ca." While history focuses on factual accounts ("iti ha asa" - thus it happened), Puranas emphasize the lives of ancient sages, kings, and great figures, as indicated by the concept of "Puranam Panchalakshanam" (the five characteristics of a Purana). These narratives of great individuals, encompassing genealogies, cosmic epochs, and dynastic histories, possess the power to inspire the public and hold significant importance in popular life. Jain Puranas, while possessing these five characteristics, also give greater weight to historical accounts.

The composition of available Jain Puranas began during the era of renowned commentators of Sanskrit literature, hence their language is predominantly Sanskrit. Among the proponents of Jain Sanskrit literature, Acharya Guddhapiccha, the author of Tattvarthasutra, stands first. The commentaries on these sutras by scholars like Pujyapada Akalanka and Vidyananda are noteworthy. Shvetambara Acharya Padaliptasuri's Nirvanakalika appeared later. Acharya Manadeva's Shantishtava, composed in the third century CE, is revered by Shvetambara Jains. Acharya Siddhasena Divakara (Shvetambara) and Acharya Samantabhadra (Digambara) deserve special mention for their profound influence. Siddhasena's Sanmatitarka and Samantabhadra's Aptamimamsa are monumental works that systematically presented Jain philosophy. Jain Sanskrit literature was further enriched by the works of Digambara Acharya Pujyapada (or Devanandi) in the sixth century CE. In the seventh century, Acharya Manavuddhi adorned Sanskrit stotra literature with the Adinath Stotra, popularly known as the Bhaktamara Stotra, whose immense popularity is evident from the countless commentaries written on it. The eighth century saw the indelible mark of Digambara Acharya Akalanka and Shvetambara Acharya Haribhadrasuri, whose works earned Jain Sanskrit literature unparalleled prestige in the intellectual world. Digambara Acharya Raviṣena's Padmapurana, published during this period, became a precursor to the luminous tradition of Jain Puranas. The Mahapurana, composed by Digambara Acharya Jinasena, is a shining jewel in this tradition. Considering the philosophical and intellectual background, the Mahapurana, composed in the ninth century CE, is not only considered arsha (divinely inspired) due to its authorship by a sage but also embodies the essence of "sunritsasana" (wise teachings) and "dharmanushasana" (religious discipline). The Mahapurana, which uniquely blends Jain philosophy with excellent poetry, is available in two parts: Purva-purana (Adi-purana) and Uttara-purana. Acharya Jinasena authored 10,000 verses of the Purva-purana, which was completed by his disciple Acharya Gunabhadra with 2,000 verses. Gunabhadra also composed the 8,000-verse Uttara-purana. This Mahapurana narrates the lives of 63 great personages, including the 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Chakravartis, 6 Balabhadras, 6 Narayanas, and their counter-Narayanas, along with their previous births. These great individuals are revered by Jains as exemplary ideals, and their glory is accepted by both Digambara and Shvetambara Jains. Shvetambaras refer to this work as "Trishashtishalakapurushacharitra" (Biography of the Sixty-three Great Persons), rather than just a "Purana." Jinasena's Padyachandrika is also a delightful ornament of Sanskrit literature. While many Jain Puranic narratives are derived from Vedic Puranas, the Jain narrative corpus is rich and significant. The Trishashtishalakapurushacharitra by the great Gujarati scholar, poet, and monk Hemachandra (born 1086 CE) holds a high place in Jain narrative literature.

The contributions of Jainism to epistemology and logic are considered eternal. From Haribhadrasuri, the author of numerous extraordinary works like "Saddarshana Samuchchaya," to the present-day Terapanthi Acharya Tulsi and his disciple Acharya Nathmal Jain, a continuous tradition of scholars has carried forward this legacy. These scholars have enriched fields such as logic, grammar, lexicography, and poetry. In Jain philosophical thought, "Anekantavada" (the doctrine of manifold aspects) is a fundamental principle that contains the seeds of the dialectical method advocated by Western philosophers Hegel and Karl Marx. The sevenfold judgment (Saptabhanginaya) – syadasti (perhaps it exists), syannasti (perhaps it does not exist), syadavaktavyah (perhaps it is inexpressible), syadasti cha nasti cha (perhaps it exists and does not exist), syadasti avaktavyashcha (perhaps it exists and is inexpressible), syannasti avaktavyashcha (perhaps it does not exist and is inexpressible) – through its seven forms of description, provides a comprehensive understanding of reality. This principle truly embodies the ideal of religious tolerance in philosophy and, similar to the Upanishadic "Neti Neti" (not this, not this), points towards human incompleteness, demonstrating the unique perspective of Jain philosophy. It is not surprising that Haribhadrasuri, a profound scholar of all philosophies, states in "Lokatatva Nirnaya": "I have no bias towards Vira, nor hatred towards Kapila. I will accept the word of whoever presents a logical argument." When a great scholar and poet like Hemachandra, initiated into Jainism, bows at the Somnath temple and exclaims, "I bow to the one whose passions like attachment and aversion, the seeds of worldly existence, have been destroyed or annihilated, whether that be Brahma, Vishnu, Hara, or Jina," there can be no doubt about the liberal contributions of such a religion and its literature. The letter from Mr. Hopkins to Acharya Shri Vijay Suri states: "I have now realized that the moral code of the Jains is commendable. I now regret that I previously pointed out its flaws and said that its main aspects were denying God, worshipping man, and protecting insects. At that time, I did not realize the great impact of this religion on people's character and conduct. Often, reading books about a religion provides objective information, but studying it closely reveals its useful aspects and forms a better opinion of it." (Quoted from S. Gopalan, Outline of Jainism, translated by Gunakar Mule, Delhi 1973, p. 167).