Jain Murtipujani Prachinta Ane Jain Mandironu Sthapatya

This document, "Jain Murtipujani Prachinta ane Jain Mandironu Sthapatya" by Dr. Priyabala Shah, delves into the antiquity of Jain idol worship and the architecture of Jain temples. It traces the origins and evolution of Jain iconography and temple construction, highlighting key periods and significant examples.

Key points covered in the text:

• Antiquity of Jain Idol Worship:

  • According to Jain tradition, the first image of Lord Mahavir was made during his lifetime. This statue, made of sandalwood, belonged to King Udayana of Sindh-Sauvir, was then acquired by King Pradyot of Ujjain, and later placed in Vidisha. A replica was kept in Vītābhay in Sindh-Sauvir. Legends suggest King Kumarpal of Gujarat excavated this statue and brought it to Anahilwad Patan. This statue is known as the "Jīvant svāmī" (living lord) statue.
  • The narratives related to the Jīvant svāmī statues in Vidisha and Vītābhay are found in texts like Āvaśyakachūrṇi, Niśīthchūrṇi, and Vasudevahiṇḍī. The story of the statue in Anahilwad Patan is narrated by Hemachandracharya in Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita.
  • These popular legends about Jīvant svāmī statues circulated from the 6th-7th centuries. Examples of such statues, adorned with crowns and ornaments, have been found in metal statues from Akota (Vadodara), believed to be from 400-500 CE, making them ancient examples of Jain sculptural art.
  • While Jain tradition dates the nirvana of Mahavir Swami to 527 BCE and Parshvanath Swami to 777 BCE, and Neminath to the time of Krishna, these timelines are not historically corroborated.
  • The oldest statues found in India are from the Harappan civilization (2400-1600 BCE). A broken stone statue from Harappa is speculated to be of a Tirthankara. Some scholars believe a figure on a Mohenjo-daro seal in kayotsarga (standing in meditation) is Jain, and a Pashupati-like figure on another seal might represent Rishabhadeva. However, the text notes a lack of definitive evidence for these interpretations.

• Early Sculptures and Architectural Evidence:

  • The oldest surviving Tirthankara statue has been found in Lohaniapur, near Pataliputra (Patna), the capital of Magadha. This broken sandstone statue, missing its head and feet, shows clear signs of being in the kayotsarga posture. The polish suggests it belongs to the Maurya period (322-185 BCE). A broken statue from the 1st century BCE from the same site has intact hands in the kayotsarga posture. The form of Tirthankara statues is believed to have been influenced by Yaksha statues.
  • There are legends of Maurya king Ashoka's grandson, Samprati, building many Jinālayas, but no remnants survive. The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharvela of Kalinga mentions the recovery of a Jin statue taken away by the Nandas, indicating the creation of Jin statues in the Nanda period, preceding the Maurya era.
  • From the 1st century CE onwards, Ayāgapaṭas (votive tablets) with Tirthankara figures have been found in Mathura. Numerous statues from the Kushan period are also found here. These statues typically depict Tirthankaras with the Shrivatsa mark on their chest and a halo behind their heads. They are shown seated in meditation in the padmāsana posture with hands in yogamudrā, or standing in kayotsarga. It can be difficult to identify specific Tirthankaras without their lāñchana (symbol). Only Rishabhadeva is identifiable by his hair locks, and Parshvanath by the serpent hood canopy.
  • The practice of placing four Tirthankara statues on four sides, known as chaumukh statues, became popular, with Rishabhadeva, Neminath, Parshvanath, and Mahavir being the most common.
  • Metal statues of Tirthankaras from Bihar, dating from the pre-Kushan to Gupta periods, are similar to the stone statues from Mathura. A statue of Neminath from the time of Chandragupta II (376-415 CE) bears a conch shell symbol on its pedestal. Similarly, Chandranatha's statue has a moon symbol on its crown.
  • The 5th-century Rishabhadeva statue from Akota, Gujarat, depicts the Tirthankara wearing clothes, considered the oldest known example in the Shvetambara tradition. From the 6th century CE, statues of Yaksha Sarvanubhuti on the right and Yakshi Ambika on the left became customary alongside Tirthankara statues. This practice continued until the 9th century, after which specific Yaksha-Yakshi couples for each of the twenty-four Tirthankaras started appearing.

• Timeline and Development of Idol Worship:

  • While the exact start of Jain idol worship is uncertain, epigraphic evidence suggests the existence of statues during the Shishunaga or Nanda periods, or some years after Mahavir's birth.
  • King Kharvela's inscription (161 BCE) mentions the restoration of a statue of Shri Rishabhadeva, which had been taken away 300 years earlier. This implies the existence of such statues before Mahavir's time.
  • The text notes that during Mahavir's era, Brahmanical art and idol worship were well-established. Jain proponents adopted idol worship, influenced by the prevailing religious climate.
  • Kautilya, in his Arthashastra, mentions Jain deities like Jayanta, Vaijayanta, and Aparajita, suggesting the origin of statues can be traced back to the 4th century BCE.
  • The text Antagaḍa Daśāo also contains references to idols. It mentions a wealthy householder in Bhadila city whose wife, Sulasa, worshipped Harinergamaṣi (likely a deity) from childhood, creating an idol and bathing it daily.
  • Jain and Buddhist monks worshipped ascetics as deities. Jainism created temples and idols for each Tirthankara and their celestial vehicles.
  • Archaeological findings in Mathura clearly indicate that statues and temples existed around 600 BCE. An inscription on an Ayāgapaṭa, similar in script to that used by the Kushan kings (2nd century CE), suggests the prevalence of deity worship from ancient times. Stupas were erected in honor of the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanath, around the 7th century BCE.
  • According to V. Smith, if Mahavir's nirvana was in 527 BCE, his attainment of omniscience could be placed around 550 BCE. A stupar associated with Parshvanath was renovated 1300 years later (750 CE). While its original construction was in brick during Parshvanath's time, an inscription suggests the ancient structure dates back to 600 BCE.

• Jain Philosophy and Art:

  • Jain philosophy defines the characteristic of a soul as upayoga (consciousness/utility). Upayoga has two aspects: self-awareness and awareness of external objects. Humans, due to their intellectual capacity, strive to understand nature, leading to the development of science and philosophy.
  • Another human quality is the discernment between right and wrong, which leads to the establishment of religious, ethical, and moral codes.
  • A third unique human quality is the worship of beauty. Humans beautify objects they use for sustenance and protection, leading to advancements in clothing, food presentation, dwelling construction, idol making, painting, music, and poetry.
  • These five arts are considered essential symbols of civilization and culture. Jain tradition places great importance on the worship of art. Ancient Jain Agamas emphasize the teaching of sculpture and arts, mentioning separate teachers for sculpture and arts.
  • Jain literature mentions 72 arts, including architecture and sculpture. The construction of cave-temples by carving stone led to the tradition of independent temples.

• Jain Temple Architecture:

  • The oldest Jain temple remnants of the Maurya period are found in Lohaniapur, near Patna, Bihar.
  • A 634 CE temple has been discovered at Aihole, near Badami in South India, built during the reign of Chalukya king Pulakeshi II. Though not fully preserved, the surviving parts showcase the temple's artistic composition and elegance. This temple is long and quadrangular, with a sanctum and a pillared hall.
  • Gupta period temples are categorized into three styles: Nāgara, Drāviḍa, and Veśara. The Nāgara style was prevalent from the Himalayas to the Vindhya mountains, the Drāviḍa style from the Vindhya mountains and Krishna river to Kanyakumari, and the Veśara style in Central India between the Vindhya mountains and the Krishna river. Both Hindu and Jain temples are found in these styles, with the Nāgara and Drāviḍa styles being particularly distinct.
  • Shatrunjaya Hill: This mountain in Saurashtra has the largest number of Jain temples. According to Shatrunjaya Mahatmya, temple construction began here from the time of the first Tirthankara. The oldest extant Jain temple is from the 11th century, built by Vimal Shah on Mount Abu (Vimal Vasahi). King Kumarpal's temple dates to the 12th century. However, the Adinath temple is considered most significant for its grandeur and artistic beauty, built in 560 CE. Chaturmukha temples are a specialty, with a prominent one on Shatrunjaya hill completed in 1608 CE.
  • Girnar Hill: Formerly known as Urjayant and Raivatgiri, this mountain is associated with the 22nd Tirthankara, Neminath, who attained nirvana here. The oldest mention of this site is from the 5th century. The most famous and beautiful temple is of Neminath. The temple of Mallinath Tirthankara, built by Vastupala, is also significant.
  • Mount Abu Temples: The Jain temples of Abu showcase the peak of Indian architecture. The Vimal Vasahi, Lūṇavasahi, Pitalhar, Chatumukh, and Mahavir Swami temples are located here.
    • Vimal Vasahi: Built by Vimal Shah of the Porwad dynasty, a minister and general to Chalukya king Bhimdeva I. Legend states he acquired land by spreading gold coins to build this temple for Adinath Tirthankara, made of white marble. It's said that 18 crore 53 lakh gold coins were spent. The construction involved transporting massive marble blocks via elephants to the mountain. The main statue of Adinath is a 4-foot 3-inch brass idol with gold inlay, consecrated in 103 CE. The temple features a large courtyard with devakulikas (small shrines) on all four sides, surrounded by pillared corridors. The main temple's rangamandap (assembly hall) with its circular roof, supported by 24 pillars, is remarkable. The ceiling features panchśilā, with 16 vidyadhari figures, creating an ethereal atmosphere.
    • Lūṇavasahi: Built by Tejpal and Vastupal, ministers of King Viradhaval of the Vaghelas, in 1232 CE, in memory of Tejpal's son, Lūṇsingh. Its design is similar to Vimal Vasahi, featuring a courtyard, devakulikas, pillars, and mandaps. The rangamandap, navchoki (hall with nine compartments), gūḍhamandap (inner hall), and sanctum are structured similarly. The inscription describes the temple as "Tribhuvanadīpak" (Lamp of the Three Worlds). The builders, Dharna Shah and Ratna Shah, reportedly received the design from a dream. The original plan was for seven floors, but only four were completed.
  • Ranakpur Temple: Built in 1439 CE, this is a vast chaturmukha temple with 420 unique pillars and sculptures. The main temple is in the center, with four smaller temples on each side. The śikharas (spires) around the mandaps have pyramid shapes. The main sanctum is svastika-shaped with four entrances. The white marble statue of Adinath is chaturmukhi. The temple has two stories.
  • Bhadreshwar Temple: Located in Kutch, this temple is historically significant, referencing the ancient city of Bhadravati mentioned in the Mahabharata and Bhagavata Purana. Archaeological evidence suggests the lower parts of the temple are from before the 12th century.
  • Most Jain temples are constructed from marble, symbolizing the artistic prowess of Indian sculptors and the devotion of patrons. The text concludes by stating that these Jain temples, representing high religious devotion and art, are worth seeing for every human.

In essence, the book provides a detailed historical and artistic overview of Jainism, focusing on the development of its visual culture, from the earliest representations of Tirthankaras to the magnificent temple architecture that continues to inspire.