Jain Kala Vikas Aur Parampara

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Kala Vikas aur Parampara" by Dr. Shivkumar Namdev, in English:

This article, "Jain Art: Development and Tradition" by Dr. Shivkumar Namdev, explores the antiquity and evolution of Jain art, focusing on sculpture, architecture, and painting. The author argues that Jainism is a very ancient religion, with proponents tracing its origins back to prehistoric times, citing the Yogi statue from Mohenjo-daro as belonging to the first Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva. Literary and archaeological evidence supports Jainism's status as one of the world's oldest religions. Art played a significant role in the propagation of Jainism, especially from the 2nd century BCE onwards.

Sculpture: Jain sculpture is characterized by numerous depictions of Arhats in the kayotsarga (standing meditation) and padmasana (seated meditation) postures. Many of these sculptures are four-faced or sarvatobhadra (all-auspicious). The article points to the Indus Valley Civilization for early sculptural evidence, suggesting that the nude torso found at Harappa could be a broken Digambara sculpture of a Tirthankara. The bull and the figure with matted hair depicted in Indus seals are also interpreted as possible representations of Rishabhadeva. Sculptures from the Mauryan period, particularly a Tirthankara statue from Lohanipur (Patna) with its fine polish and emaciated body, are highlighted as significant. The Shunga period saw sculptures like Rishabhadeva dancing with the celestial dancer Nilanjana, and ayagapattas (votive plaques) from Kankali Tila. The Kushan era is marked by Mathura as a major center for Jain art, with numerous sculptures found at Kankali Tila. The similarity between Jain and Buddhist sculptures from this period is noted, with the Shrivatsa symbol being a key differentiator. The article also mentions the popularity of Sarasvati images in Jain tradition from the Kushan period onwards. During the Gupta period, Jain sculptures, while retaining earlier characteristics, showed increased sophistication in the ushnisha (headgear), ornamentation of the prabhavali (halo), and the inclusion of motifs like the Dharma Chakra, deer, and Shrivatsa. Sculptures from this era are found in various locations like Vidisha, Chausa, and Ramgiri. The post-Gupta period saw art infused with Tantric sentiments, with the inclusion of Yakshas and Yakshinis of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. During the medieval period, representations of eight planets on the pedestal of Jain images became common, mirroring Hindu practices. The Kalachuri, Chandela, and Parmar dynasties in Madhya Pradesh contributed significantly to Jain art, with sculptures found in Karitalai, Tewar, Malhar, and Ratanpur. Jain temple architecture in Khajuraho, built during the Chandela period, is noted for its architectural and sculptural richness. The Parmar period in Malwa also saw a flourishing of Jain art, with significant temple remains found in Un and other sites. The article then surveys the presence of Jain sculptures in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra, highlighting key sites and stylistic features.

Architecture: The history of Jain architecture is linked to the broader development of Indian architecture, beginning with the Indus Valley Civilization. Jain architectural styles evolved over time, incorporating new elements. Jain art's architectural designs are influenced by Jain cosmology and beliefs. The earliest and most famous Jain caves are found in the Barabar and Nagarjun hills, originally constructed for the Ajivika sect, which historical evidence suggests had origins and eventual mergers with Jainism. The rock-cut caves of Khandagiri-Udaigiri in Odisha, dating back to the 2nd century BCE, are significant, with the Hathigumpha inscription detailing the life of King Kharavela. Other important cave sites mentioned include Son Bhandar in Rajgir, Pabosa near Kaushambi, Junagadh, Dhank, and the Jain caves within the Udaiagiri complex near Vidisha, which contain inscriptions of Gupta rulers. The article notes the presence of early Jain caves in South India, such as the Bhadrabahu cave on Chandragiri hill in Karnataka, and the Sittanavasal cave in Tamil Nadu. Cave temples at Aihole and Ellora in Maharashtra are also discussed, along with Jain caves from the Tomar period in Gwalior. The tradition of constructing large pillars before Jain temples in the medieval period is mentioned, with the Kirti Stambh in Chittor serving as a testament to this art form.

Temples: Temples hold a significant place among ancient Jain relics. The MeGuti temple in Aihole (634 CE) is considered the oldest well-preserved Jain temple. Jain temples in Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) and Osian (Rajasthan), dating to the 8th-10th centuries CE, are highlighted for their architectural styles and inscriptions. The famous Dilwara temples on Mount Abu, built in the Solanki style, are particularly praised for their exquisite craftsmanship. The article also mentions Jain temples on the hills of Shatrunjaya and Girnar in Gujarat, as well as significant temple complexes in various pilgrimage sites across India, including Parshvanath (Bihar), Shravanabelagola (Karnataka), Khajuraho, Kundalpur, and Muktagiri (Madhya Pradesh). The Bhumija style of temple architecture is also discussed, with examples from Un (Madhya Pradesh) and Sevri (Rajasthan).

Painting: Jain painting possesses a distinct tradition, with vibrant and artistic paintings found on palm leaves, textiles, and paper. The earliest examples of Jain mural painting are found in the Sittanavasal caves in Tamil Nadu, dating to the 7th century CE. Palm-leaf manuscripts with paintings from the 11th to 14th centuries CE are preserved in Jain Bhandars in Karnataka and Gujarat. The oldest dated painted palm-leaf manuscript is the Kalpasutra from 1427 CE. While some scholars suggest the paintings in the Jogimara caves (Madhya Pradesh) have Jain themes, pushing the antiquity of Jain painting to 300 BCE, the article generally accepts the 7th century CE as a more firmly established starting point for dated Jain painting traditions.

Conclusion: The author concludes that Jainism is an extremely ancient religion, with its art traditions dating back possibly 4,000 years BCE, as suggested by Indus Civilization artifacts. The art provides evidence of Jainism's continuous development and widespread dissemination across India from ancient times through the medieval period. By the first century CE, Jainism had spread throughout North India, and its influence in South India began even earlier, around the 4th century BCE, continuing to flourish for over 1300 years.