Jain Kala Ka Avdan

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Kala Ka Avdan" by Marutinandan Prasad Tiwari, focusing on the contribution of Jain art:

Overall Context:

The text emphasizes that Indian art is fundamentally religious, with its various forms primarily expressing religious sentiments and deities. Consequently, shifts and developments in religions over time and across regions have led to corresponding changes in the subject matter of art. The author posits that the art of different religions collectively forms Indian art, like branches of a single tree. While stylistic differences between religious arts are not pronounced, their sectarian nature is evident in their subject matter and the details of the sculptures.

Jain Art's Significance and Scope:

Jainism is identified as one of India's major ancient religions. While significant work has been done on Jainism itself, Jain art, particularly in its detailed aspects, has not received extensive scholarly attention. This particular study focuses on Jain sculpture, primarily in North India, up to the 12th century CE.

Political and Economic Support for Jain Art:

• Royal Patronage: While only a few North Indian rulers like Chandragupta Maurya, Samprati, Kharavela, Nagabhatta II, and Kumarpala Chalukya are mentioned as having embraced Jainism, most dynasties until the 12th century CE maintained a liberal attitude towards Jainism. This was due to three main reasons:
  1. The generally tolerant religious policy of Indian rulers.
  2. Jainism's respectful and receptive approach towards other religions.
  3. Jainism's significant popularity among traders, businessmen, and the common populace.
• Merchants and Commoners as Patrons: The author stresses that Jain art received more support and cooperation from merchants, businessmen, and common people than from rulers.
• Economic Foundation: The flourishing of Jain art in North India between the 8th and 12th centuries CE was underpinned by a strong economic background. Prosperous trade centers and influential Jain trading communities in regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh facilitated the construction of numerous Jain temples and the creation of a vast number of sculptures.
• Important Dynasties and Art Centers: The Kushana, Gupta, Pratihara, Chandel, and Chalukya periods were particularly significant for Jain art, architecture, and iconography. During these times, important Jain art centers like Mathura, Deogarh, Akota, Khajuraho, Osian, Gyaraspur, Kumariya, Abu, Jalore, Taranga, and the Navamuni-Barabhuji Caves flourished in North India.

North India as the Cradle of Jain Art:

• Birthplace of Tirthankaras: According to Jain tradition, all 24 Jinas of the current Avsarpini era were born, active, and attained Nirvana in North India. This geographical association likely made North India the primary region for the composition of early Jain texts and artistic expression.
• Early Texts and Iconography: The initial compilation and writing of Jain Agamas occurred here. Important iconographic texts like the Kalpasutra, Paumacariyam, Angavijja, and Vasudevahindi were written in this region. Every stage of the traditional development of Jain iconography is first reflected here.
• Earliest Sculptures and Iconographic Features: The earliest Jin sculptures originated in North India, found at Lohanipur (Patna) and Chouasa (Bhojpur). Key iconographic features that first appeared in North India include:
  • Rishabhanatha's falling matted hair.
  • Parshvanatha's seven-hooded cobra canopy.
  • The Shrivatsa symbol on the chest of Jinas.
  • The ushnisha (cranial protuberance) on the head of Jinas.
  • The display of ashta-pratiharas (eight auspicious signs) and the two traditional postures (kayotsarga and dhyana mudra) in Jin sculptures.
  • The representation of laanchhanas (symbols) and Yaksha-Yakshi pairs.
• Distinctions from South Indian Sculptures: South Indian Jin sculptures generally lack the ushnisha. The Shrivatsa symbol is often on the right side of the chest rather than in the center. Furthermore, South Indian sites have not yielded sculptures of Mahavidyas, 24 Yakshis, Ayagapata, Jivantaswami Mahavira, or Jain couples, while many such sculptures exist in North India.

The Popularity of Tirthankaras and Associated Deities:

• Tirthankara Popularity: Rishabhanatha has the most sculptures in North India, followed by Parshvanatha, Mahavira, and Neminatha. Conversely, Mahavira and Parshvanatha are more frequently depicted in South India, with Rishabhanatha sculptures being comparatively few.
• Yakshini Popularity: Chakreshvari, Ambika, and Padmavati are the most frequently depicted Yakshinis in North India. In South India, however, Jwalamalini, the Yakshini of Chandaprabha, is more popular than Chakreshvari, followed by Ambika and Padmavati.
• Yaksha Representation: In South India, Gomukha, Kubera, Dharanendra, and Matanga are the most commonly found Yakshas.
• Sectarian Differences in Sculpture: North India produced sculptures for both Digambara and Shvetambara traditions, whereas South India primarily yielded sculptures of the Digambara tradition.

The Antiquity of Image Worship and the Jivantaswami Tradition:

• Indus Valley Civilization Connection: The text touches upon the possible connection between certain Indus Valley Civilization seals depicting standing male figures in a kayotsarga-like posture and later Jin sculptures, noting the need for further epigraphic evidence.
• The Jivantaswami Tradition: The tradition of Jivantaswami (living lord) statues, believed to have been created during Mahavira's lifetime, is discussed.
  • Literary Evidence: Jain texts suggest that a sandalwood statue of Mahavira was made during his lifetime, depicting him as a prince in meditation in his palace. This statue was called Jivantaswami. The term is also used for later statues.
  • Iconographic Representation: Jivantaswami statues are depicted as princes adorned with crowns and belts.
  • Scholarly Debate: U.P. Shah is credited with bringing the Jivantaswami tradition to light and accepts its Mahavira-contemporaneous origin based on literary evidence, supported by two Gupta-era bronze Jivantaswami statues from Akota.
  • Lack of Early Evidence: Early Agamas and texts like the Kalpasutra do not mention Jivantaswami statues. The earliest mentions appear in later works (6th century CE onwards).
  • Historical Uncertainty: The author expresses doubt about the Mahavira-contemporaneous origin of Jivantaswami statues due to their absence in early Agamic literature. Currently, there is no definitive historical proof to place the concept of Jivantaswami statues back to Mahavira's time.

Key Periods and Developments in Jain Sculpture:

• Mauryan Period: The oldest known Jain sculpture is from the Mauryan period, found at Lohanipur (Patna). Its nudity and kayotsarga posture indicate it's a Jin sculpture. This period also saw the beginnings of image worship in Jainism, with the Lohanipur sculpture being the oldest known idol of a deity across all religions. Kharavela's inscription from the 1st century BCE also refers to a Jin image.
• Shunga-Kushana Period: Bronze statues of nude Parshvanatha in kayotsarga posture from the 2nd-1st century BCE have been found. Jain Ayagapata (votive tablets) from Mathura (1st century BCE) represent a transitional phase where both symbols and anthropomorphic forms of deities were worshipped. The Shrivatsa symbol and dhyana mudra began to be depicted on Jinas in Mathura during this period. Mathura became a major center for Jain art during the Kushana period, yielding sculptures of various Tirthankaras, life scenes, Ayagapata, Jin-Chowmukh (four-faced Jin images), and figures of Saraswati and Negameshi.
• Gupta Period: Jain sculptures were found in Mathura, Chouasa, Rajgir, Vidisha, Varanasi, and Akota. This period saw the creation of independent Jin statues and Jin-Chowmukh images, including depictions of Rishabhanatha, Chandaprabha, Pushpadanta, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira. Shvetambara Jin sculptures also first appeared during this time (e.g., Akota).
• Post-Gupta to 12th Century CE: This era produced a wealth of Jain iconographic texts and sculptural material. The majority of Jain temples and sculptures were created during this period.
  • Shvetambara vs. Digambara Art: Gujarat and Rajasthan were dominated by Shvetambara art, while other regions featured more Digambara art. Shvetambara temples often incorporated 24 devakulikas (small shrines) for the 24 Jinas. Digambara sites had more Jin sculptures, including independent, dvitiirthi, tritiirthi, and chowmukhi images. Shvetambara depictions of Jinas tended to be more uniform, while Digambara depictions showed greater diversity.
  • Iconographic Details: Digambara sculptures often included the Navagrahas (nine planets), Bahubali, and traditional Yaksha-Yakshi pairs, along with deities like Chakreshvari, Ambika, and Lakshmi. Shvetambara sculptures often had inscriptions with the names of Jinas, while Digambara sculptures marked them with their symbols. Life scenes and Samavasarana (assembly of Jinas) representations are primarily found in Shvetambara sites.
  • Popularity of Deities: Sixteen Mahavidyas were popular in Shvetambara art, while Yaksha-Yakshi pairs were more popular in Digambara art. Various other deities like Shantidevi, Brahma Shanti Yaksha, Jivantaswami Mahavira, Ganesha, and the parents of the Jinas were popular in Shvetambara art. Saraswati, Balarama, Krishna, Ashtadikpalas, Navagrahas, and Kshetrapala were depicted in both traditions.
  • Syncretism and Tantric Influence: Some Shvetambara temples featured goddesses influenced by Hindu deities like Shiva and Jain Sarvanubhuti, and depictions related to erotic themes ( kamakriya). This is attributed to the Tantric influence prevalent in the medieval period. The Harivanshapurana mentions a merchant who built a Jain temple and included images of Kamadeva and Rati to attract people, leading to the temple being known as Kamadeva's temple and drawing people to Jainism.

Development of the Jain Pantheon:

• Proto-Pantheon (End of 5th Century CE): The basic form of the Jain pantheon was established, including the 24 Jinas, Yakshas, Yakshis, Vidyas, Saraswati, Lakshmi, Krishna, Balarama, Rama, Negameshi, and other shalakapurtushas.
• Detailed Iconography (8th-12th/13th Centuries CE): Detailed iconographic descriptions of these figures are found in Jain texts from this period.
• Fully Developed Pantheon: The complete Jain pantheon included the 24 Jinas, 24 Yaksha-Yakshi pairs, 16 Mahavidyas, Dikpalas, Navagrahas, Kshetrapalas, Ganesha, Brahma Shanti Yaksha, Kapadi Yaksha, Bahubali, 64 Yoginis, Shantidevi, parents of the Jinas, and the Pancha-Paramechthis. While the external development of the pantheon was similar for both Shvetambara and Digambara traditions, differences existed in the names and iconographic details of deities.

The Tirthankara Iconography:

• The 24 Tirthankaras: The concept of the 24 Tirthankaras is central to Jainism. The list was established before the Common Era.
• Sculptural Depiction: Sculptural representation of Jin images began around the 3rd century BCE.
• Popularity of Specific Tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha, Parshvanatha, Mahavira, and Neminatha are the most popular and earliest depicted Tirthankaras in art. Their Yaksha-Yakshi pairs also gained popularity. Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha, Suparshvanatha, Chandaprabha, Shantinatha, and Munisuvrata are the next most frequently depicted. Only about 10 out of the 24 Tirthankaras were widely represented in North India.
• Iconographic Development:
  • Parshvanatha's symbol (seven-hooded cobra canopy) was the first to be standardized.
  • Rishabhanatha's falling matted hair was depicted in Mathura and Chouasa sculptures.
  • The depiction of Balarama and Krishna with Neminatha began in Mathura.
  • The Shrivatsa symbol and dhyana mudra also originated in Mathura.
  • The ashta-pratiharas, Dharma Chakra, auspicious symbols (Swastika, Matsyayugala, Shrivatsa, Purnaghata), and devotees were first depicted on Jin sculptures during the Kushana period.
  • During the Gupta period, laanchhanas, Yaksha-Yakshi pairs, and ashta-pratiharas began to be depicted with Jinas.
  • The list of independent laanchhanas for the 24 Jinas was established around the 8th-9th centuries CE.
  • By the 9th-10th centuries CE, Jin sculptures were fully developed, incorporating various elements.
  • The 11th to 13th centuries CE saw elaborate depictions of the life scenes of Tirthankaras like Rishabhanatha, Shantinatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira in Shvetambara sites.

Other Iconographic Elements:

• Jin-Chowmukh (Sarvatobhadrika): The earliest Jin-Chowmukh statues appeared in Mathura in the 1st century CE. These can be divided into two categories: those with four identical Jinas and those with four different Jinas. The former began around the 7th-8th centuries CE, while the latter dates back to the 1st century CE. The concept of Samavasarana is linked to the development of these multi-faced images, although the connection is complex.
• Yaksha and Yakshi Worship: Yaksha worship is mentioned in early Jain texts, with Manibhadra, Purnabhadra, and Bahupatrika Yakshi being particularly prominent. The Yaksha-Yakshi pairs of Sarvanubhuti (Kubera) and Ambika, which are the oldest Yaksha-Yakshi pairs associated with Jinas, are influenced by the Manibhadra-Purnabhadra tradition. The depiction of Yaksha-Yakshi pairs in sculptures began around the 6th century CE, initially on the thrones or pedestals of Jin images.
  • Standardization: Lists of Yaksha-Yakshi pairs for the 24 Jinas were established around the 8th-9th centuries CE, with their specific iconographic features being determined in the 11th-12th centuries CE.
  • Influence of Hinduism and Buddhism: Many Yaksha and Yakshi names and iconographic features were influenced by Hindu and Buddhist deities. Jainism adopted names and characteristics from these traditions.
  • Popularity: Yaksha and Yakshi sculptures were most prevalent in the Digambara sites of North India (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh). Ambika was particularly popular in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• Other Shalakapurtushas: Sculptures of Balarama, Krishna, Rama, and Bharata are found, dating from the 10th-12th centuries CE. Saraswati was depicted from the Kushana period onwards, and Sri Lakshmi from the 10th century CE. Images of Indra appeared from the 11th-12th centuries CE. Negameshi statues date to the Kushana period. Ganesha, Brahma Shanti Yaksha, and Kapadi Yaksha are found from the 10th-12th centuries CE, with Ganesha's iconography being heavily influenced by Hindu tradition.
• Bahubali: Bahubali and Bharata Chakravarti hold significant prestige in Jain tradition. Sculptures of Bahubali began appearing in the 6th-7th centuries CE in South India, with famous examples at Badami and Aihole. These depict him in kayotsarga posture, entwined with vines, snakes, and scorpions, symbolizing his rigorous penance. The 57-foot-tall statue of Bahubali at Shravanabelagola (981-983 CE) is a monumental masterpiece.
• Mahavidyas: Sixteen prominent Mahavidyas were identified around the 9th century CE, and their iconographic features were determined between the 9th and 12th centuries CE, with sculptures being created accordingly. Early lists and sculptures of these Mahavidyas are found in Osian and later in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Concluding Thoughts and Further Research:

The author concludes by highlighting several key points for consideration:

• The development of Indian art is intertwined with its religious traditions, necessitating an understanding of Indian religious and cultural history.
• More definitive epigraphic evidence is needed to conclusively establish the Jivantaswami statue tradition's origin during Mahavira's lifetime.
• The evolution of Jin sculptures, including the depiction of laanchhanas, ashta-pratiharas, and Yaksha-Yakshi pairs, is a significant area of study.
• A comparative study of the Sarvatobhadrika Jin images and other contemporary and earlier multi-faced Indian sculptures is required.
• The study of Yaksha-Yakshi, Mahavidyas, and other Jain deities should be undertaken within the context of cultural exchange across Indian traditions.
• The distinct popularity of life scenes of Mahavidyas and Jinas in Shvetambara sites, and Yakshis and figures like Bharata and Bahubali in Digambara sites, is noteworthy. The presence of erotic art in some Jain sites also warrants attention.

In essence, "Jain Kala Ka Avdan" provides a detailed overview of the development, characteristics, and significant periods of Jain sculpture, particularly in North India, emphasizing the interplay of religious, economic, and cultural factors in shaping this rich artistic tradition.