Jain Iconography A Brief Survey

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided text, "Jaina Iconography: A Brief Survey" by Umakant P. Shah, focusing on the evolution and characteristics of Jain imagery and worship:

Introduction and Antiquity of Jainism and Iconography:

The text begins by acknowledging the lack of definitive prehistoric evidence for Jainism. While some seals from Mohenjo-Daro show postures analogous to Jina figures, their interpretation remains uncertain. Jain tradition places the first 22 Tirthankaras in ancient epochs, but modern scholarship accepts only the last two, Parshvanatha and Mahavira, as historical figures. The earliest concrete archaeological evidence for Jain image worship dates back to the Mauryan age (c. 3rd century BCE), supported by the Lohanipur torso, although a Harappan statuette remains difficult to date and might represent a Yaksa. Literary evidence, while hinting at image worship, needs careful consideration due to the dating of canonical texts.

The Origin of Image Worship and the Jivantasvami Concept:

A significant point is the belief in a life-time portrait statue of Mahavira, known as the "Jivantasvami-pratima." This sandalwood statue, depicting Mahavira with ornaments and a lower garment, was reportedly worshipped during his lifetime and influenced later Jaina art. The tradition of Jivantasvami images is considered fairly old, with bronzes dating to around 550 CE. However, regular worship of Tirthankara images and shrines likely emerged later, though not after the period of the Lohanipur torso.

Influences and Precedence of Jain Iconography:

The author suggests that Jain images were modeled on ancient Yaksa statues, and the worship of Yaksa-Naga cults significantly influenced Jain practices. The similarity between Jain and Buddha images, and the fact that both were heterodox movements challenging Brahmanism, implies a shared influence. Crucially, the text argues that Jina-images definitely preceded Buddha-images as cult objects, supported by the Lohanipur torso.

Early Evidence and Iconographic Development:

• Mauryan Age: The Lohanipur torso, a highly polished free-standing figure, and later torsos from the same site, indicate an early phase of Jina iconography.
• Kankali Tila (Mathura): Antiquities from this site, dating from the 2nd century BCE, reveal the prevalence of stupa worship in Jainism. The site also yielded early sculptures of Tirthankaras, auspicious symbols (Svastika, Wheel of Law, etc.), and Ayagapatas (tablets of homage).
• Kushana Period: Images of Tirthankaras from Mathura during this period (1st-3rd centuries CE) show no drapery, suggesting a period before the final differentiation between Digambara and S'vetambara iconographic conventions. Worship was then focused on a few Tirthankaras: Rishabhanatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha, and Mahavira.
• Akota Bronzes: The earliest known Jina image with a lower garment is a bronze of Rishabhanatha from Akota (c. 450-500 CE), highlighting a key difference with the Digambara tradition where no drapery is shown.

Tirthankaras and Their Identifying Features:

• Lack of Recognizing Symbols (Lanchhanas) initially: Tirthankara images lacked specific cognizances until the end of the Kushana period. Identification relied solely on votive inscriptions.
• Evolution of Lanchhanas: The first appearance of lanchhanas in art is traced to a Neminatha sculpture from Rajgir (Gupta period). However, lists were not finalized, with some early sculptures showing symbols incorrect for the depicted Tirthankara. The finalization of lanchhana lists is linked to the period of the schism between the Digambara and S'vetambara sects.
• Complexions: Tirthankaras are depicted with different complexions (white, golden, red, black, dark-blue), which aid in identification.
• Rishabhanatha: His iconography is particularly noteworthy. His bull cognizance, Yaksa Gomukha, and association with hair-locks falling on shoulders bear resemblances to the Hindu deity Shiva.
• List of Tirthankaras: The text includes a table detailing the 24 Tirthankaras, their complexions, and cognizances according to both S'vetambara and Digambara traditions, noting discrepancies.

The Panchaparamesthins and Salakapurushas:

• Panchaparamesthins: The five supreme beings (Arhat, Siddha, Acarya, Upadhyaya, Sadhu) are objects of veneration. Their worship is impersonal, focusing on the qualities of these souls. Representations of Siddhas often show them seated on the Siddha-shila.
• Salakapurushas: These are "great souls" and include the 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Cakravartins, 9 Baladevas, 9 Vasudevas, and later, 9 Prati-Vasudevas, totaling 63. Their lives form the theme of Jaina Puranas.

Deities and Other Figures in Jain Iconography:

• Four Classes of Gods: Jain cosmology classifies gods into Bhavanavasis, Vyantaras, Jyotiskas, and Vimanavasis. These are secondary deities.
• Kulakaras: Comparable to Hindu Manus, there were 14 (Digambara) or 7 (S'vetambara) Kulakaras.
• Incorporation of Popular Deities: Jainism, like other sects, incorporated deities popular among the masses, such as Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Vasudeva, Kubera, Yaksa, Naga, and Pisaca, often assigning them subordinate roles as attendants.
• Indra: The Vedic deity Indra was often depicted as an attendant of the Jina or Buddha.
• Skanda: The Hindu commander of gods became the commander of Jaina Indra's infantry.
• Naigamesha: Associated with procreation, this deity was also worshipped by Jainas.
• Sarasvati (Srutadevata): The Goddess of Learning is a prominent deity. An early image from Kankali Tila shows her in a posture associated with Mahavira's attainment of knowledge. Later images show her with multiple arms and various attributes like the vina, book, rosary, and lotus. Her worship is ancient, with literary references and artistic representations dating back to the Kushana period. Her iconography shows similarities with Buddhist Prajnaparamita and Hindu Sarasvati.
• Sri-Lakshmi: The Goddess of Abundance and Beauty is also popular. Her worship is linked to the ancient Mother-goddess cult. She is often depicted with lotuses and accompanied by elephants (Gaja-Lakshmi). Her worship is present in both Jain sects.
• Yaksas and Yaksinis:
  • Ancient Origins: Yaksa worship is very ancient, with shrines like Purnabhadra Caitya mentioned in Jain texts. Mahavira himself is said to have stayed in such shrines.
  • Precursors to Ayagapatas: The "Prithvi-shila-patta" mentioned in connection with Purnabhadra Caitya is considered a precursor to the Jain Ayagapatas from Mathura.
  • Attendants (Sasana Devatas): Yaksas and Yaksinis were introduced as attendant deities protecting the Sangha of a particular Jina. Initially, a common pair (Kubera-like Yaksa and Ambika-like Yaksi) was introduced.
  • Evolution of Specific Pairs: The evolution of distinct Yaksa-Yaksi pairs for each Tirthankara occurred later, likely after 500 CE, with the period between the 6th and 13th centuries CE seeing significant developments due to Tantric influence.
  • Ambika: This Yaksi's introduction into Jain worship is placed around the 6th century CE, with the Akota hoard providing early evidence. She is the Yaksi of Neminatha in later traditions.
  • Cakresvari: The Yaksi of Rishabhanatha, she is a later deity compared to Ambika. Her iconography resembles the Hindu Vaishnavi.
  • Siddhayika: She replaced Ambika as the Yaksi of Mahavira but did not achieve the same popularity as Ambika, Cakresvari, and Padmavati.
  • Padmavati: A snake-goddess, she gradually replaced Vairotya (an earlier snake-goddess) in popular worship around 1000 CE. Her role in Jaina Tantra is significant.
  • Lists of Yaksinis: Comparative tables from various sources (Devagadh, Tiloyapannatti, Pratisthasaroddhara, Hemacandra) show variations in the names and assignments of Yaksinis.
  • Popularity: While distinct pairs evolved, the Kubera-like Yaksa and Ambika remained popular for a long time, even after Hemacandra's time. The 24 different Yaksinis became widely popular in temple worship later, around the 10th-12th centuries CE.
  • Borrowing: Many Yaksas and Yaksinis show clear influence from Hindu deities (e.g., Brahma-Santi, Kapardi Yaksa). This borrowing was likely a strategy to attract followers and demonstrate superiority over other sects.
• Vidyadevis (Sixteen Mahavidyas): These Tantric goddesses are worshipped by both sects. While texts on their sadhana-vidhi are scarce, belief in them is ancient. Their worship seems associated with spells and supernatural powers. Some Vidyadevis (e.g., Rohini, Prajnapti, Vajrankhali, Vajrankusi) show clear influence from Buddhist goddesses. Sarasvati is distinct from these Vidyadevis, despite the name "Vidya-devata."
• Other Deities: The worship of the eight Dikpalas, nine Planets, and eight Matrikas, common in Brahmanical iconography, was also incorporated into Jain worship to appease the laity. Ksetrapala, the guardian deity, is also present.

Conclusion:

The text "Jaina Iconography: A Brief Survey" meticulously traces the development of Jain imagery and iconography from its earliest stirrings to more complex medieval forms. It highlights the influences of pre-existing Indian religious traditions, particularly Yaksa cults, and the gradual evolution of specific iconographic attributes for Tirthankaras, their attendant deities, and popular goddesses like Sarasvati and Lakshmi. The author emphasizes the importance of archaeological evidence alongside literary sources to understand the historical trajectory of Jain art and practice, noting the interplay between sectarian developments and broader cultural influences. The work underscores that Jain iconography, while rooted in its own philosophical principles, engaged with and adapted prevalent religious motifs, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian religious art.