Jain Dharm Me Nari Ki Bhumika - Book Summary

This document is an excerpt from the book "Jain Dharm me Nari ki Bhumika" (The Role of Women in Jainism) by Dr. Sagarmal Jain. It provides a comprehensive overview of the status and role of women in Jainism, drawing from ancient Jain scriptures (Agamas) and their commentaries.

Here's a summary of the key points discussed:

1. Introduction and Context:

Jainism, as part of the Shraman tradition, emphasizes egalitarianism and has historically advocated for the equality of men and women.
It rejects the notions of women as mere servants or objects of pleasure, considering them equal to men.
However, Jainism, like other Indian traditions, developed within a patriarchal society, and its understanding of women's roles was influenced by the prevailing social norms.
The author emphasizes the need to analyze Jain texts carefully, considering the different time periods of their composition and the evolving interpretations.

2. Nature of Jain Texts:

Jain Agamas are not monolithic but were composed and refined over a thousand years (5th century BCE to 5th century CE).
Their narrative portions often relate to ancient traditions and mythology.
Commentarial literature spans from the 5th to the 12th century CE and reflects both ancient and contemporary societal contexts.
The author identifies four periods for studying these texts: Pre-Agamic (up to 6th century BCE), Agamic (6th century BCE to 5th century CE), Prakrit Commentarial (5th to 8th century CE), and Sanskrit Commentarial/Mythological (8th to 12th century CE).
The author highlights regional (North vs. South India) and sectarian (Shvetambara vs. Digambara) differences in interpretations regarding women.

3. Definition of "Woman" (Nari Lakshana):

Jain āchāryas classified "woman" into two categories: Dravya-stri (physical woman) and Bhava-stri (mental/emotional woman, related to desire).
Dravya-stri refers to the physical characteristics associated with the female body.
Bhava-stri refers to feminine nature, particularly sexual desire, which is described metaphorically as a slow-burning fire that intensifies with stimulation.
While physical and psychological aspects are linked, it's noted that sexual desire (veda) can be overcome through spiritual development, whereas physical form (linga) is tied to karma.
Stri-tva (womanhood) is defined through ten indices: name, establishment (iconography), physical form, region-specific attire, temporal existence (having embodied female form in any time), reproductive capacity, feminine actions, capacity for enjoyment, feminine qualities, and feminine desires.

4. Negative Portrayal of Women's Character:

Jain texts, particularly the Tandulavaichārika, contain extensive lists of negative attributes ascribed to women, depicting them as:
- Uneven, masters of sweet words and deceitful love.
- Causes of men's downfall, destruction of strength, and death.
- Sources of immodesty, deceit, enmity, and sorrow.
- Hindrances to spiritual progress and celibacy.
- Described with animalistic comparisons (serpent, elephant, tigress, donkey, horse) to highlight their negative traits like anger, lust, cruelty, untrustworthiness, and capriciousness.
- Their speech and actions are often contradictory to their thoughts.
Texts like Uttaradhyayana-churni, Āvaśyaka-bhāṣya, and Niśītha-churni also describe women as fickle, having transient love, abandoning men after fulfilling their needs, and easily swayed by small gifts.
They are sometimes likened to a dangerous well or poisonous creeper.
Sūtra-kṛtāṅga and its commentary caution against trusting women, even those who seem well-behaved, well-pleased, or familiar. It emphasizes that women think one thing, say another, and do a third.

5. Women's Behavior Towards Men:

Jain texts vividly describe how women, after captivating men, assert dominance and issue commands for various domestic needs, personal adornments, and even for fetching items for religious worship or consumption of alcohol.
They are depicted as exploiting men's affection, making them work like donkeys, and using flattery or scolding to get their way.
While this portrays a negative aspect, the author argues that this was intended to evoke detachment and renunciation in men, given Jainism's ascetic nature.

6. Positive Portrayal of Women's Character:

Despite the negative portrayals, Jainism also praises virtuous women who are famous, god-like, and worshipped by deities and men.
Women who gave birth to Tirthankaras, Chakravartis, and great scholars are revered.
The text highlights the virtues of chastity, enduring widowhood, and the possession of miraculous powers derived from spiritual strength.
Examples include women who survived natural calamities or animal attacks due to their purity.
The text mentions women like mother of Vasudeva and Tirthankaras being respected.
Mahāniśītha praises women who control their desires due to fear, social shame, or faith, considering them divine and auspicious.
The Shvetambara tradition's acceptance of Malli Kumari as a female Tirthankara is cited as a significant elevation of women's spiritual potential.
The worship of guardian goddesses like Chakreshvari and Ambika, though influenced by later traditions, indicates the respect accorded to feminine divinity.
Numerous instances are cited where women like Rajomati, Brahmi, Sundari, and Jayanti enlightened men and guided them towards the right path.
The inclusion of orders of nuns (bhikshuni sangha) and laywomen (shravika sangha) within the four-fold Jain sangha signifies gender equality.
The establishment of the bhikshuni sangha by Parshvanatha and Mahavira, without hesitation (unlike Buddha), is presented as evidence of Jainism's more liberal attitude towards women.
The consistent higher number of nuns and laywomen compared to monks and laymen throughout Jain history is seen as proof of women's significant role and engagement in the Jain community.

7. Equality of Men and Women in Spiritual Attainment:

Agamas like Uttaradhyayana, Jñātādharmakaṫhā, and Antakṛtdaśā clearly state that both men and women are capable of achieving the highest spiritual goal, liberation (moksha).
The concept of strī-liṅga siddha (liberated female) is mentioned.
Even in texts recognized by Digambaras as Agamas, like Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and Mūlācāra, the possibility of spiritual perfection and liberation for both sexes is accepted.
The author finds no indication in early Jain literature that denies women the possibility of liberation.

8. The Denial of Female Liberation:

The denial of female liberation and the concept of female Tirthankaras likely originated with some Digambara āchāryas in South India around the 5th-6th century CE (e.g., Kundakunda).
The primary arguments for this denial were:
1. Physicality: Women's bodies are prone to bleeding and assault, making them unable to remain unclothed (achēla), which is seen as essential for liberation. Without complete renunciation, liberation is impossible.
2. Compassion vs. Cruelty: Women are considered primarily compassionate and lacking in extreme harshness of intent, making them unsuitable for the lowest realms of existence (hells). The logic was that if they cannot go to the lowest, they cannot go to the highest either.
3. Mental Instability: Women are seen as having fickle minds, hindering stable meditation.
4. Intellectual Deficiency: Lack of argumentative power and sharp intellect makes them unfit for studying complex philosophical texts like Dṛṣṭivāda.
While Shvetambaras did restrict women from studying certain texts due to intellectual reasons, they generally did not deny the possibility of liberation itself.

9. Freedom and Equality in Marriage:

Early Jain texts suggest a more liberal attitude towards women's freedom in choosing partners.
The Jñātādharmakaṫhā records instances where fathers allowed daughters to choose their husbands.
In Upāsaka-daśā, Revati is depicted as having independent religious beliefs and practices, even when they conflicted with her husband's.
However, later commentarial literature shows an increasing tendency for spouses to impose their religious beliefs on each other.
The author notes that while the ancient tradition may have allowed women more autonomy, the practice of arranged marriages became more prevalent, sometimes even involving abduction.
Jainism viewed marriage primarily as a way to manage desires if celibacy was not possible, rather than a central religious duty.

10. Polygamy and Polyandry:

Jainism, like most Indian traditions, generally accepted monogamy for women. The exception of Draupadi is explained through her past karma and vows.
The text notes the presence of polygamy among men, with Rishabhanatha's marriages being the earliest recorded instance, attributed to the need to protect widows.
However, the author clarifies that polygamy was not religiously sanctioned as an ideal and was considered an excess in the vow of contentment with one's spouse.
While social practices might have included polygamy, it was not an encouraged religious duty for Jain followers.

11. Widowhood and Remarriage:

Jainism did not support widow remarriage or niyoga (levirate marriage), aligning with its renunciatory principles.
Instead, many widows found refuge and respect in the bhikshuni sangha.
The text refutes the claim that Rishabhanatha's marriage to his deceased yogini-wife established widow remarriage.

12. Extramarital Relations:

Jainism strictly prohibits extramarital sexual relations, including with prostitutes.
The text acknowledges instances of moral lapses among both laypeople and ascetics, but emphasizes that these were considered deviations and not sanctioned.
There are mentions of women who were victims of male lust or who themselves instigated sexual advances towards ascetics, leading to rules for protecting the chastity of nuns.
Victims of rape were not punished; the sangha provided support and protection, and such nuns could re-enter the order after their child was old enough.

13. Protection of Women:

Jain traditions emphasized the protection of women's chastity and honor.
The story of Acharya Kalaka defending his sister (a nun) against miscreants by seeking military aid is cited as an example of the sangha's commitment to protecting women, even resorting to violence when necessary.
In situations of danger (water, fire, thieves, famine), women were prioritized for protection.
Nuns were also permitted to stay with monks under specific protective circumstances, such as during travel in dangerous areas or to care for ill monks.

14. Sati (Suttee) and Jainism:

Jain Agamas and commentaries do not support the practice of sati.
While a rare exception mentions wives immolating themselves with their husbands' pyres due to king's orders, this is not presented as a Jain ideal.
Jainism views such acts as foolish and contrary to its principles.
The practice of sati is seen as a later adaptation or misinterpretation, where the term "sati" came to mean a chaste woman, not necessarily one who immolated herself.

15. Status of Courtesans (Ganikā):

Courtesans were part of Jain society, and debates existed on whether they were considered "unattached women" (aparigrahita-stri).
Early Jainism prohibited intercourse with unattached women, and Mahavira reinforced this by linking celibacy to non-possession.
While prostitution was not endorsed, courtesans who maintained certain moral standards were allowed entry into the sangha as laywomen and could even support religious activities.

16. Women's Education:

Ancient Jain texts indicate that women received education.
Rishabhanatha's daughters, Brahmi and Sundari, were taught mathematics and script.
Women were described as skilled in 64 arts, implying a comprehensive education in language, arts, and domestic skills.
While religious education was primarily imparted by nuns, there are indications that male āchāryas sometimes provided instruction.
Later Shvetambara commentaries restricted women from studying certain complex texts like Dṛṣṭivāda, attributing it to their perceived emotional instability and lack of intellectual rigor, a trend the author attributes partly to Hindu influence.

17. Comparison with Other Religions:

Hinduism: While the Vedic period saw women in significant religious and social roles, later Hindu traditions (Smriti period) led to their subjugation, limiting their rights and confining them to domestic roles. Practices like polygamy and sati further diminished their status. Jainism, with its renunciatory focus and strong bhikshuni sangha, provided a more supportive environment.
Buddhism: Jainism is seen as more liberal towards women than Buddhism. Buddha's initial reluctance to establish a bhikshuni sangha and the imposition of eight strict rules (Ashtaguru-dharma) indicate a less egalitarian stance. While Jainism allowed women to become Tirthankaras, Buddhism did not permit women to become Buddhas.
Christianity: Similar to Jainism, Christianity reveres figures like Mary, the mother of Jesus, and has a well-established order of nuns engaged in education and service, demonstrating a positive role for women. However, modern Western Christian societies' emphasis on individual freedom has led to increased divorce and breakdown of family structures, contrasting with the sanctity of marriage in Jainism.
Islam: Islam's absence of a strong ascetic tradition and its acceptance of polygamy and easy divorce significantly diminish the status and freedom of women, often viewing them as objects of pleasure.

Conclusion: Dr. Sagarmal Jain concludes that Jainism has historically adopted a relatively practical and liberal approach towards women, especially when compared to many other traditions. The presence of a robust bhikshuni sangha provided women, particularly widows, orphans, and the destitute, with dignity, protection, and a path to spiritual and social independence. While influenced by prevailing societal norms and traditions that led to some restrictions over time, Jainism consistently upheld the dignity of women and their capacity for spiritual development, exemplified by the concept of female Tirthankaras. The book highlights that the Jain bhikshuni sangha has played a crucial role in protecting women from social oppression and providing them with a dignified life.