Jain Dharm Me Amurtipujak Sampradayo Ka Udbhav Evam Itihas

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Jain Dharm me Amurtipujak Sampradayo ka Udbhav Evam Itihas" by Narendra Bhanavat, based on the provided pages:

Core Tenets of Jainism and the Nature of the Divine:

The text begins by emphasizing that Jainism is fundamentally an "atmavadi" (soul-centric) religion. It posits that God is not the creator, preserver, or destroyer of the universe. Instead, God is understood as the state of ultimate spiritual development that the soul can achieve. Individual happiness and suffering are not divinely ordained but are the direct consequence of one's own actions. A soul engaged in virtuous actions is a friend, while one engaged in wicked actions is an enemy, as stated in the Uttaradhyayan Sutra: "The soul itself is the doer and the undoer of its happiness and suffering. The soul is its own friend and enemy."

Lord Mahavir shifted the focus from external deities to human endeavor and self-exertion. He declared that humans possess infinite potential and can attain the divine state (paramatma-dasha) by awakening their inner spiritual power. The divine is not external but resides within the individual. Mahavir advocated for internal battles against one's own vices and passions rather than external warfare, considering self-conquest the ultimate victory. He famously said, "He who conquers a million warriors in a difficult battle is not equal to him who conquers himself; that is the highest victory."

The primary obstacles to self-victory are the mental afflictions of attachment (raag) and aversion (dwesh). Attachment to favorable experiences and aversion to unfavorable ones lead to constant mental wavering. Through mind, speech, and body, these passions bind the soul, obscuring its inherent powers, which is described in scriptural terms as the "covering of karma." Attachment manifests as delusion, infatuation, greed, etc., while aversion appears as anger, pride, jealousy, etc., collectively known as "kashayas" (passions). These kashayas entangle individuals in worldly affairs, weakening their spiritual potential and making them dependent on material things. True liberation (moksha) is achieved by shedding these karmic coverings and eradicating passions, leading to a state of "vitraagta" (freedom from passions). By practicing right knowledge, perception, conduct, and austerities, one destroys the destructive karmas (ghati karmas) like knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, delusion-inducing, and obstructive karmas. Upon their destruction, the soul becomes pure and attains the divine state, becoming an Arhat or a Jivanmukta (liberated while living). The ultimate state of liberation after shedding the body is the Siddha state.

Evolution of Worship and Rituals:

The text traces the development of various worship practices, stemming from early human encounters with nature. Initially, people likely personified natural forces and elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether) as various deities due to awe and curiosity. This led to polytheism. As human intellect and reasoning developed, there was a shift towards Panchadev worship (five deities) and eventually the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh), reflecting a move towards monotheism and the concept of a singular, attributeless, formless, supreme power (nirguna-nirakar Brahman).

The worship of this formless Brahman encouraged introversion, with knowledge, yoga, meditation, and ethical conduct becoming central. However, for the common person, formless worship was not easy. This led to the emergence of incarnationism (avatarvad) and saguna-upasana (worship of a formful deity), where avatars represented divine manifestations. Devotion, surrender, praise, and adoration became key components. Both forms of worship aimed at removing passions and achieving union with the divine through purification.

Saguna worship provided an object of focus, aiding concentration. This formless object initially appeared as auspicious symbols like the swastika, flag, pitcher, and trees. Later, these evolved into memorial symbols, such as stupas and chaityas (built on funeral pyres). Archaeological finds like Ayagapattas from Mathura are presented as examples of such symbolic representations, connected to significant events in the lives of great souls. These were meant for remembrance and inspiration, not worship or prayer, similar to how photographs are cherished today. Ancient Jain scriptures mention "chaityas" in a way that suggests they were primarily memorial markers. The original meaning of "chaitya" referred to a state or place of introspection and meditation, linked to knowledge, before it evolved to mean a temple.

Mahavir's Era and the Early Jain Sangha:

Mahavir's era was one of intellectual awakening, challenging existing traditions. With approximately 363 philosophical schools prevalent, including the Ajivika sect which considered its founder a Tirthankara, Mahavir established an agnostic, soul-centric religion focused on sensory conquest and self-realization. However, the Tirthankara lineage ended with Mahavir.

His chief disciple, Indrabhuti Gautam, attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) on the same night Mahavir attained Nirvana, preventing him from becoming the successor. Therefore, Sudharma became the first head of the Sangha, followed by Jambu Swami. With Jambu Swami, the era of Kevalins ended, ushering in the Shrutakevali era (from Vir Nirvana Samvat 64 to 170), which saw five eminent Shruthakevalis. Following this was the Purvadhar era (from Vir Nirvana Samvat 170 to 584) and the general Purvadhar era (from Vir Nirvana Samvat 584 to 1000), producing many great Acharyas. By the end of this period, differences arose in the scriptural traditions due to memory lapses. Under Acharya Devardhikshamasraman, a council was held at Valabhi, and the Jain Agamas were compiled based on memory. The current Agamas are a result of this compilation.

Division of Jainism and the Rise of Idolatory:

Traditionally, it is believed that approximately 609 years after Mahavir's Nirvana, Jainism divided into Digambara (those who accept nakedness for monks) and Svetambara (those who accept white garments for monks). The Digambara sect later branched into Dravida, Kashtha, and Mathura Sanghas, while the Svetambara sect split into Chaityavasi and Vanavasi.

Over time, the pure spiritual revolution initiated by Mahavir gradually saw the decline of spiritual purity, with the proliferation of deity worship (devvad) and idol worship (murtivad), leading to various corruptions. Historical, social, religious, and ethical factors contributed to this. Influences from Shaivism, Lingayatism, and Shankara's Advaita Vedanta in South India, along with an environment of rebellion against Jainism, led to the adoption of Hindu worship practices, rituals, and even the sacred thread. The austere practices of Jainism were simplified, adopting aspects of Buddhism's Middle Path, leading to a relaxation in conduct and thought. In Mahayana Buddhism, idol worship was integrated. Over time, praise, adoration, and devotional bhakti replaced pure inspiration, and idol worship, rather than inspiring devotion, became entangled in material worship and associated ostentation.

The Agamas prescribe six essential duties for monks and laypeople: Samayika, Chaturvimsati-stavan, Vandan, Pratikraman, Kayotsarg, and Pratyakhyan. These aim at turning inwards. While they mention the praise of Vitaraag Lords, they do not indicate idol installation or worship. Agam texts describing the conduct of laypeople (Shravakachar) like Upasakadasha, Bhagavati Sutra, Acharanga, Sutrakritanga, Jñātādharmakathā, Samavāyanga, Thānanga, etc., do not mention idol worship. References to "chaitya" and "yakshayatan" do not imply temples with installed Tirthankara images. Even today, for monks, despite the widespread practice of temple building and idol worship, idol worship is not practically observed.

Corruptions in the Name of Idol Worship:

As Jainism drifted from its core focus towards the periphery, various corruptions emerged. The commentaries on the original Agamas, in the form of Niyukti, Bhashya, Churni, Vritti, Tikas, etc., sometimes analyzed events and characters in ways that supported temple construction, idol worship, and consecration ceremonies. This likely reflects the influence of later material worship. A verse quoted from Abhayadevasuri's "Agam Atthotari" highlights this:

"I know that the tradition of spirit (the original tradition established by Lord Mahavir) remained intact until Devardhikshamasraman. But after his demise, the monks generally became lax, and as a result, various traditions of material worship were established."

This led to laxity in monastic conduct. Acharya Jinavallabhsuris's work "Sanghpattak" from the 12th century CE mentions ten rules for Chaityavasi monks, including accepting food made for them without criticism, permanent residence in Jain temples, monks accumulating wealth, making disciples for generations through teachings and mantras, accepting Jain temples as their property, and sitting on seats that cannot be properly cleaned. Earlier, Acharya Haribhadrasuri had strongly criticized these practices in his 'Sambodh Prakaran'.

The tradition of dravya puja (material worship), connected to outward-focused tendencies, gradually became more popular among all segments of society. Royal dynasties in South India, such as the Ganga, Kadamba, Rashtrakuta, and Hoysala, also contributed significantly to its spread. Acharyas began incorporating idol worship into daily religious duties. Consequently, statues of Tirthankaras began to be installed in place of deities, leading to the construction of numerous Jin-bimbas (images of Jinas) and Jin-mandirs. Grand ceremonies were organized for idol installation, often associated with miracles and special powers. The belief that these ceremonies imbued idols with worshipfulness and that their worship would fulfill desires gained traction. Festivals like Panchakalyanak and Anjanshalaka were celebrated. Large donations were collected through bidding for various ritualistic roles. For instance, people considered themselves blessed by obtaining the merit of anointing the Jin-pratima (idol) by acting as Indra and Indrani during the Janmakalyanak festival. On various festivals and occasions, Jin-idols were adorned with precious ornaments of gold, silver, diamonds, and gems, and worshipped with eight offerings: water, sandalwood, unbroken rice, flowers, unbaked sweets, lamps, incense, and fruit, and washed with Panchamrita (five nectars). Competitive bids were held for these, accumulating significant "deva-dravya" (divine wealth). Thus, idol worship transformed from a symbol of spiritual purification and a source of inspiration for detachment to a symbol of grandeur and display. Various Gachhas (sects) and traditions emerged based on worship and ritualistic methods, leading to conflicts over pilgrimage sites. As a result, temples and idols, instead of dispelling attachment and aversion, became a cause for their increase.

When the objective of physical desire fulfillment overshadowed self-purification and the pacification of passions, not only were the statues of Vitaraag Lords adorned with material possessions, but the worship of guardian deities (Shasan Devis and Devtas) of Tirthankaras began for the acquisition of material wealth. These deities even became the primary focus of worship, overshadowing the Tirthankaras themselves. For example, Bhairav and Padmavati Devi became more prominent than Parshvanath. The environment, rituals, and order of deity temples became akin to feudal systems. Jainism, which had once sparked a revolution against miracles and the concept of divine agency, became entangled in miracles itself, with followers beseeching Jinendra Bhagwan and considering them the arbiters of their happiness and suffering, living in a state of pathetic dependence. The allure of spells, incantations, and charms for material desires led to the dormancy of individual effort among the common people. Followers of karma-based Jainism became slaves to divine grace.

The Emergence and Development of Amurtipujak Sampradayas (Iconoclastic Sects):

These growing corruptions in the name of idol worship led to a wave of revolutionary change not only within Jainism but also in other religious traditions. Generally, the concept of nirguna Brahman (attributeless Brahman) was considered supreme. "Guna" (quality) also means rope, which binds. Therefore, "nirguna" implies unbound, free. The primary goal of nirguna worship is freedom from worldly bonds. Saguna worship involves being bound by the qualities of the worshipped deity. When the qualities of the worshipped deity manifest in the devotee, there is no qualitative difference between nirguna and saguna worship. The great poet Tulsidas alluded to this by saying, "There is no difference between the attributeless and the attributeful." When the pursuit of acquiring the divine qualities in saguna worship is lost, and the acquisition of outward worldly grandeur and material prosperity becomes the primary goal, religion ceases to be religion and becomes a business.

When commercialism and hedonism began to flourish in the name of idol worship, thinkers and yogis who adhered to soul-centric philosophies strongly opposed it. In the Arab world, when statues of tribal chieftains were worshipped, and each tribe had its own deity, Muhammad launched a jihad against idol worship. In Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib is worshipped in place of idols. Jamoji (1508-93 CE), the founder of the Bishnoi sect, Jasnathji (1539-63 CE) of the Jasnathi sect, Haridasji (1512-95 CE) of the Niranjani sect, and the renowned saint Kabir were spiritual figures in the iconoclastic tradition. The strong wave of opposition against idol worship in the 15th-16th centuries was consistently felt.

In the Jain tradition, following Lord Mahavir, the various Gachhas and sects that emerged generally exhibited an increasing reformist tendency. Acharya Kundakunda, in his "Bodhpahud" within "Ashtapahud," describes the nature of the Nirgranth monks. According to him, the true "Ayatan" (place of worship) is the monks themselves, who are rich in self-control. The true "Chaityagriha" are these disciplined, self-realized monks who protect all living beings. The moving, embodied form of the pure, passion-free Nirgranth Vitaraag monks, endowed with right perception, knowledge, and conduct, is the "Jangam Pratima" (moving image). The immobile Siddha Lords, free from eight karmas and possessing infinite fourfold qualities, are the "Sthavar Pratima" (immobile image). Vitaraag, disciplined Acharyas, who provide pure teachings and initiation due to the destruction of karma, are the true reflections of the Jin-dev (Jina deity). Acharyas whose posture subdues sensory objects and passions are truly the Jin-mudra (Jina posture). That which helps one cross is the "Tirtha" (ford).

Even Acharyas of the Chaityavasi tradition initiated a movement for reform against these corruptions. Notable among them are Vardhamana Suri (11th century CE) and his disciples Jineshwara Suri, Jinnadatta Suri, Jagachandra Suri, etc. Sects like Kharataragachha, Tapagachha, Acalagachha, Agamkagachha, and Badagachha opposed these corruptions within their limits, but their opposition was not very effective, and the corruptions in the name of idol worship continued to grow.

Key Iconoclastic Figures and Their Movements:

The 15th-16th centuries saw two prominent figures in Jainism who strongly opposed idol worship: Lokashah and Taran Swami. Lokashah's philosophy led to the development of the Lokagachha, and Taran Swami's philosophy gave rise to the Taran Panth. The Sthanakvasi Sampradaya, based on Lokashah's ideology, has significant influence today. The Terapanth Sampradaya emerged from the Sthanakvasi Sampradaya in the 18th century, founded by Saint Bhikhanji.

1. Lokashah and the Sthanakvasi Sampradaya:

   • Lokashah was a revolutionary, learned, fearless, and courageous lay follower. Details about his birth, place, and initiation are debated, with approximate birth years ranging from 1472 to 1482 CE. His religious activities were primarily based in Ahmedabad.
   • He was a man of sweet speech, diligent, and influential. Due to unrest caused by wars between Sirohi and Chandravati, he moved to Ahmedabad and started a jewelry business, quickly gaining renown. He even served as treasurer to the ruler of Ahmedabad for ten years.
   • The murder of the ruler by his son deeply affected Lokashah, leading him to renounce worldly pleasures. He was a seeker of truth and a philosopher.
   • While transcribing scriptures, he was struck by the line from the Dashavaikalika Sutra: "Dharma is the highest auspiciousness, non-violence, self-control, and austerity. Even gods bow to him whose mind is always on Dharma." He pondered why people were bowing to stone idols when Mahavir had declared non-violence, self-control, and austerity as the true Dharma.
   • As his scriptural studies deepened, he became astonished by the corruptions in the name of Dharma. He saw violence in external rituals and material worship, and a focus on fulfilling desires rather than self-control. He felt that austerity was being replaced by the pursuit of comfort by the monastic community.
   • Lokashah advocated for the worship of pure self-Dharma through non-violence, self-control, and austerity, rejecting material idol worship. He emphasized samayika (equanimity) and pratikraman (atonement) and stressed the importance of Paushadh Vrata (fasting). He prioritized knowledge and meditation over devotion and taught that instead of asking for worldly gains from idols, one should strive for freedom from possessions by feeding the hungry, providing medicine to the sick, giving refuge to the fearful, and imparting knowledge to the uneducated. He promoted guruvandan (veneration of the guru), satsang (congregation of the virtuous), svadhyay (self-study), and sadacharan (good conduct) over idol worship. He advocated for residing in simple "Sthanaks" (places of congregation) rather than ornate temples and opposed spells, incantations, ostentation, and display.
   • His revolutionary ideas greatly influenced people. It is said that when four Sanghapatis (leaders) met him and heard his ideas, they were deeply impressed. Around 1531 CE, 45 individuals embraced Jain initiation inspired by his teachings.
   • His sect was called Lokagachha but soon divided into Gujarati Lokagachha, Nagori Lokagachha, and Lahori Uttarardh Lokagachha. As laxity crept into this sect too, saints like Munishri Jivrajji, Lavji, Dharmasinghji, and Dharmadasji led a reform, giving rise to the Sthanakvasi Sampradaya. This sect is also known as "Bais Tola" due to the 22 disciples of Dharmadasji. Prominent contemporary Acharyas include Anandarshiji, Hastimalji, and Nanalaalji. The sect is called Sthanakvasi because monks reside in Sthanaks. Spiritually, it refers to those whose "place" is their own virtues.
   • Lokashah faced considerable opposition. Much of the information about him comes from literature written in opposition to him. His surviving works include "Chautis Bol," "Atthavan Bol," and answers to thirteen questions posed to him.

2. Shvetambar Terapanth:

   • The founder of the Shvetambar Terapanth Sampradaya is Saint Bhikhanji. He was born in Kantalia village in the Jodhpur state in 1783 CE. He was a truth-seeker, opposed to hypocrisy, reformist, and inquisitive about religion.
   • His parents followed the Gachhavasi (Yati) tradition. Dissatisfied, he attended lectures by the Potibandh sect and later became a follower of Acharya Raghunathji of the Sthanakvasi Sampradaya, receiving initiation in 1808 CE.
   • In 1815 CE, during his Chaturmas in Rajnagar (Mewar), the local lay followers had several doubts regarding the conduct of the monks, such as their rules regarding place and clothing, and their attachment to disciples. Saint Bhikhanji engaged in discussions with them and concluded that reforms were needed in the current system.
   • Upon meeting Acharya Raghunathji, Saint Bhikhanji affirmed the doubts of the Rajnagar lay followers and urged for reforms. Due to differences with Raghunathji, he severed ties with him in 1817 CE. At that time, Saint Bhikhanji was accompanied by 12 other monks.
   • A poet from the Sekk caste, accompanying the Diwan of Jodhpur, Fatehmalji Singhi, who observed some Sthanakvasi monks meditating in the market, coined the term "Terapanth" for Saint Bhikhanji's group, referring to the 13 supporting monks: "Listen, people of the city, these are the Terapanthi saints."
   • Upon hearing this, Saint Bhikhanji reinterpreted the term, stating, "O Lord! This is Your (Tera) path. We are all moving forward without delusion on it, hence we are Terapanthi." He further justified the number thirteen by stating that those who fully adhere to and follow the thirteen principles (five Mahavratas, five Samitis, and three Guptis) are Terapanthis.
   • Like the Sthanakvasi Sampradaya, Saint Bhikhanji opposed idol worship. However, he did not support the emphasis on charity and compassion prevalent in the Sthanakvasi community as a form of "self-Dharma," calling the merit gained from it "worldly Dharma." He primarily emphasized the negative aspect of non-violence: "Do not kill; save the dying." He did not consider this a cause for liberation.
   • He faced significant opposition during his missionary work in Marwar, Mewar, and Kutch. He initiated 49 monks and 56 nuns. His works, a blend of philosophy and folk elements, are compiled in "Bhikshu Granth Ratnakar." He passed away in 1860 CE.
   • His successors include Acharya Bharmalji, Acharya Raychandji, Acharya Jitamalji (Jayacharya), Acharya Madhwagani, Acharya Manikgani, Acharya Dalgani, Acharya Kalgani, and Acharya Tulsi. Acharya Tulsi introduced new dimensions and revolutionary changes, promoting moral upliftment and character building through the Anuvrat movement, making Jainism a national movement. He introduced practical, small ethical rules (Anuvrat) for social upliftment and established Jain Vishva Bharati in Ladnun, integrating education with meditation, non-violence, and service. He also pioneered Preksha Dhyana for stress relief and mental health.

3. Taran Panth:

   • Parallel to the Chaityavasi Yati tradition in the Shvetambar sect, the Bhattarka sect played a significant role in religious propagation, literature creation, and preservation in the Digambara tradition. However, this also saw a decline in the pure form of Jain Dharma, with an increase in ostentation and ritualism in the name of devotion. Bhattarakas became wealthy feudal lords, accumulating vast wealth. Temple building, consecration ceremonies, and material worship replaced inner purity and good conduct. Grand celebrations of Panchakalyanaks became means of public acclaim rather than inner purification. Religious practices became entangled in rituals, spells, and charms. Wealth, not Dharma, became the focus of devotion.
   • In reaction to this, just as Lokashah opposed idol worship in the Shvetambar tradition, Taran Swami opposed it in the Digambara tradition, founding the Taran Panth.
   • Taran Swami was born in Puhpavati Nagari in 1448 CE. His father worked in the court of Delhi's Sultan Bahlol Lodi. Taran Swami was brilliant and studious, receiving his education from Muni Shrutasagar. He remained a lifelong celibate. He extensively studied religious texts and presented a form of Dharma focused on self-purification, opposing external ostentation in the name of idol worship.
   • Taran Swami emphasized that without a pure heart, stone worship is meaningless. He opposed distinctions of caste and creed in worship, asserting that in Mahavir's dispensation, even animals and birds have equal opportunities and status. He preached the self-Dharma to people of all castes and communities and promoted the worship of scriptures in place of idols.
   • His prominent disciples included Chidanand Choudhary, Lakshman Pandaya, Parmanand Vilasi, and Lukman Shah (a Muslim). Several kings, including Shivkumar and Shahkumar of Gujarat and the king of Raysengarh, accepted his teachings. He had millions of followers, including people from castes like Charanagar, Samaiya, Aseḍhi, Ayodhya, and Golapurab.
   • Taran Swami authored 14 works, including "Shravakachar," "Malaji," "Panditpuja," "Kamal Battisi," "Nyayasammuchhasar," "Upadeshshudhasar," "Tribhangisar," "Choubees Dhala," "Mammal Pahud," "Sunn Swabhav," "Siddh Swabhav," "Khatka Vishesh," "Kadmasthavani," and "Namamala." These works, written in a mixed Sanskrit-Hindi language prevalent in the 15th century, oppose external rituals of worship and emphasize inner purity, external and internal austerity, purity of conduct, and clarity of mind. His writings reveal deep spiritual experience and philosophical thought in describing the pure self-nature.
   • Traditional devotees vehemently opposed Taran Swami, employing pressure, inducements, and even assassination attempts, but he remained undeterred. A boatman named Chidanand Choudhary was persuaded by opponents to take Taran Swami into deep water and drown him. However, on three occasions, Taran Swami was found sitting on a platform in the middle of the water, unharmed. Impressed by this "miracle," Chidanand became his disciple, and his influence grew.
   • Taran Swami passed away in 1572 CE in Nisai Kshetra (Malharhgarh, Madhya Pradesh). Semarkhedi in the forests of the Vidisha district was also a place of his spiritual practice, where he is believed to have taken monastic initiation.

Current Situation:

The revolutionary wave against the corruptions of idol worship in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, which led to the emergence and development of iconoclastic sects, did indeed bring about awakening by presenting the path of knowledge, perception, conduct, and austerity for self-purification and good conduct. However, it appears that the transformative and lasting impact on life was not fully achieved. The practices that were emphasized instead of idol worship, such as samayika, pratikraman, compassion, paushadh, and charity, did not fully realize their original goals. They became mechanical and remained largely in the realm of "doing" rather than "becoming." Consequently, in these sects as well, images are being replaced by pictures, calendars, and posters. Ostentation and display are evident in various religious festivals and processions, with the worship of virtues taking a backseat to the worship of individuals. Mahavir has been left behind, and the gurus and Acharyas of different sects have become central. The iconoclastic sects are also afflicted by sectarianism and doctrinal differences.

While idol-worshippers seek to fulfill their desires by praying before idols, it seems that iconoclasts have also come to view religious actions as a means to achieve material prosperity. Wealth and property are again central to religious practice. Possessiveness and grandeur are considered the results of merit. While in idol worship, offerings are made to God, here, the desire is to enjoy oneself. True Dharma lies in detachment and renunciation, but renunciation has become a mere show, for the sake of name rather than an internal transformation. Idols themselves are inert and neutral, beyond attachment and aversion; it is we who distort them by associating worldly relationships with them. However, where there are no idols but individuals, if their acquisitiveness and desire for fame are not extinguished, they can create delusion by portraying themselves as gods and receiving worship and respect from devotees. Every self-seeker needs to be cautious of this developing situation.