Jain Dharm Ki Parampara Itihas Ke Zarokhese

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Jainism: Tradition and History Through the Lens of Time

This text, authored by Dr. Sagarmal Jain, explores the historical journey and traditions of Jainism, highlighting its unique place among world religions. Despite its current relatively small numbers globally, Jainism is recognized for its intellectual breadth, philosophical depth, extensive literature, and exquisite art.

The Shramana Tradition: A Foundation of Asceticism

The author begins by categorizing world religions into Semitic and Aryan branches. Jainism is placed within the Aryan branch, alongside Hinduism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism. A key aspect of Jainism, along with Buddhism, is its belonging to the Shramana tradition. This tradition is characterized by its ascetic (Nivritti Marga) path, contrasting with the active, worldly path (Pravritti Marga) found in Vedic Hinduism. The Shramana tradition emphasizes renunciation, detachment, and the pursuit of liberation (Nirvana) as the ultimate goal of life, achieved through intense ascetic practices, yoga, and ethical conduct (vows or sheelas). The text notes that this tradition also encompassed Upanishadic and Sankhya-Yoga streams, which later became integrated into Hinduism, as well as other now-extinct streams like the Ajivikas.

The Nirgrantha Tradition: From Early Ascetics to Formal Sects

The 7th-6th century BCE is described as an era where the teachings of various ascetics, yogis, and thinkers were respected by the populace, without adherence to specific groups. Over time, disciples and followers coalesced around these individuals, leading to the formation of distinct traditions. The Nirgrantha tradition emerged, with followers of Parshva identifying as "Parshvapathyas" and followers of Mahavira as "Jnatriputriyas." Siddhartha Gautama's followers were known as "Shakyaputriyas."

The text emphasizes that the ancient name of Jainism was the Nirgrantha Dharma. The term "Jain" itself came into existence about a thousand years after Mahavira's passing. Inscriptions from rulers like Ashoka (3rd century BCE) and Kharavela (2nd century BCE) refer to Jainism as the "Nirgrantha Sangha."

The Lineage of Parshva and Mahavira

Early Jain texts like Rishi-Bhashita (Isibhasiyai) and Uttaradhyayana indicate that figures like Nami, Bahuka, Kapila, Narayana (Tarayana), Angirasa Bharadvaja, and Narada were also honored within the early Nirgrantha tradition, even though they weren't strictly part of its direct lineage. They were called "Arhats." However, as the Nirgrantha community became more focused on Parshva and Mahavira, these earlier figures were respectfully acknowledged as "Pratyekabuddhas" but implicitly distinguished from the direct tradition. By the 5th or 4th century BCE, the Nirgrantha Sangha became primarily associated with Parshva and Mahavira.

The text points out that initially, the traditions of Parshva and Mahavira were distinct. While some followers of Parshva joined Mahavira's sangha during his lifetime, the full integration didn't occur until after Mahavira's passing. The Uttaradhyayana suggests that Mahavira's chief disciple, Gautama, and the then-acharya of the Parshva tradition, Keshi, collaboratively laid the groundwork for the unification of their respective sanghas in Shravasti. Although direct evidence of complete assimilation is lacking, a significant portion of Parshva's followers joined Mahavira's tradition, and Parshva came to be recognized as a predecessor. The term "Purushadaniya" used for Parshva is cited as evidence of this acceptance. Over time, the Nirgrantha tradition sought to establish its ancient origins by accepting prominent historical figures like Rishabha, Nami, and Arishtanemi.

The Historicity of Rishabha and Other Tirthankaras

The text acknowledges that Vedic scriptures clearly indicate the existence of the Shramana tradition in ancient times, with Rishabha as its progenitor. However, it notes the difficulty in definitively outlining Rishabha's philosophical and ethical beliefs and their exact proximity to modern Jainism. It is certain, however, that Rishabha emphasized meditation and asceticism as the path of renunciation. While the historicity of Rishabha, Nami, Ajita, Vera, Arishtanemi, Parshva, and Mahavira is supported by tradition, the historical evidence for Tirthankaras other than the last two is scarce, relying primarily on later Jain scriptures and narrative texts.

Mahavira and the Ajivika Tradition

The text details the interaction between Mahavira and the Ajivika leader Mankhali Gosala. They were associated for some time but diverged due to philosophical differences regarding determinism and free will. Hermann Jacobi theorized that the austerity of Mahavira's Nirgrantha tradition, including nudity, might have been influenced by Gosala's Ajivika practices. While Gosala had his own Ajivika tradition with figures like Arjuna, it's difficult to definitively establish the direction of influence. The text notes that the Ajivika tradition persisted until the first-second century CE and was a rival Shramana tradition whose ascetics, like some Jain ascetics (Digambaras), were naked. The classification of Shramanas in Buddhist texts, placing Nirgranthas above other ascetics but below Ajivikas, suggests a nuanced relationship of rivalry and respect.

Divisions within the Nirgrantha Sangha during Mahavira's Lifetime

A significant event during Mahavira's life was the ideological disagreement with his son-in-law, Jamali, leading to Jamali's departure with his followers. The Kalpasutra and Bhagavati Sutra provide details of this schism. Another event mentioned in Buddhist Pitaka literature, occurring after Mahavira's passing, involved a dispute among his white-robed disciples and lay followers. The cause of this dispute is not detailed in the Pitakas, but the text speculates it might have been related to Mahavira's successor or the conflict between naked and clothed ascetics within the sangha. The author suggests that the Buddhist tradition might have linked this dispute to Mahavira's Nirvana during the editing of their Pitakas. The text believes the dispute was likely between the naked ascetics and those who adopted clothing for comfort or modesty.

The Spread of the Nirgrantha Sangha

Mahavira's Nirgrantha Sangha's influence initially centered on Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. After his passing, this influence expanded. However, until the composition of the Agamas and the development of Tirthankara concepts, the reach was limited to parts of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and western Rajasthan. Arishtanemi is the only Tirthankara whose association with Saurashtra (around Mathura) and his Nirvana at Girnar Mountain is mentioned, along with his proximity to Dwarka. The text suggests this association with Dwarka might be due to his relationship with Krishna.

The text posits that Mahavira's ascetics (Acharya Krishnas ascetics) spread from their base in Bihar in two directions:

1. Southward: One group traveled from South Bihar, through Bengal and Orissa, to Tamil Nadu, and then to Sri Lanka and other Southeast Asian countries. Around the 2nd century BCE, due to the increasing influence of Buddhism, Nirgranthas were expelled from Sri Lanka and returned to Tamil Nadu. Numerous Jain inscriptions in Brahmi script from the 1st-2nd century BCE in Tamil Nadu attest to the presence of the Nirgrantha Sangha there, about 200-300 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. The tradition of Acharya Bhadrabahu initiating Chandragupta Maurya and then going south is also mentioned, though its historical authenticity is debated.

2. Northward: The text suggests that the adoption of clothing in the northern Nirgrantha Sangha, influenced by the Parshva tradition and the colder climate, led to a division. The northerners, being more inclined towards comfort, eventually adopted wearing a single garment. This is supported by Buddhist texts describing Nirgranthas as wearing one cloth (ekashataka) and Ajivikas as naked.

The Northern Nirgrantha Sangha: Evolution and Divisions

The period between Mahavira's Nirvana and the 1st-century CE Mathura inscriptions witnessed significant changes within the northern Nirgrantha Sangha, marked by philosophical differences among the "Nihnavas" (schismatics) and the division of the sangha into various groups, branches, and lineages. The "Nihnavas," such as Jamali and Tishyagupta (from Mahavira's time), and Ashadhbhuti, Ashvamitra, Ganga, Rohagupta, and Goshthimahil (from 214 to 584 years after Mahavira's Nirvana), held differing views on traditional Nirgrantha beliefs. However, these divisions did not result in the formation of entirely new sects.

The text highlights the emergence of Gana (college) and Shaka (branch) divisions within the sangha. While the reasons for these divisions are not fully known, the author speculates they were likely due to organizational conveniences and the evolution of disciple lineages. The Uttaradhyayana mentions the unification of the two sanghas by Gautama and Keshi in Shravasti after Mahavira's passing.

The Mathura inscriptions and art from the 1st-2nd century CE are crucial for understanding these changes. These artifacts depict Tirthankara images as naked, with ascetics covering their nudity with a piece of cloth. The presence of accoutrements like a cloth bag (jholi), a mouth cloth (mukhvastrika), and a duster (pratilekhan or rajoharan) in the hands of ascetics is also evident. These depictions align with the practices of the Shvetambara tradition, particularly the Sthana-vasi and Terapanthi sub-sects. The text notes that ascetics used to carry the mouth cloth and duster in their hands, not worn on their faces as in modern traditions. The author also points out the existence of stupas in Jain tradition, as evidenced by Mathura art.

The Yajapaniya or Bhotika Sangha

In the 2nd century CE, approximately 609 years after Mahavira's Nirvana, another division occurred in the northern Nirgrantha Sangha, separating it into Sachala (clothed) and Achala (naked) factions. This division was influenced by the followers of Parshva and the gradual acceptance of clothing and vessels for reasons of practicality and comfort. A disagreement arose between Arya Krishna and Arya Shivabhuti regarding the continuation of the "Jinaklalpa" (ascetic ideal). Arya Krishna considered the accepted clothing and vessels essential for monastic practice, while Arya Shivabhuti advocated for their renunciation and adherence to the Jinakalpa, asserting that the ideal of nudity (Achalata) was the supreme path. The northern Achala tradition was referred to as "Bhotika" (corrupted) by the Shvetambaras but later became known as the Yapaniya tradition. It was also known as the Gopya Sangha due to its development in Gopachal.

The Yapaniya Sangha shared characteristics with both Shvetambara and Digambara traditions. It accepted the Ardhamagadhi Agamas inherited from the Shvetambaras and acknowledged the liberation of clothed individuals, women, and other faiths. However, it also prohibited clothing and vessels and emphasized the nudity of ascetics, aligning with the Digambara tradition. The Yapaniya ascetics were naked and ate directly from their hands. Their acharyas created numerous texts in Shauraseni Prakrit, drawing from the Agamas, including works like Kashaya Prabhruta, Shatkhandagama, Bhagavati Aradhana, and Mulachara.

The Literary Tradition and Councils

The period from Mahavira's Nirvana to the 5th century CE saw the compilation and collection of Ardhamagadhi Agamic literature. The First Council at Pataliputra (3rd century BCE) is believed to have collected Anga Sutras and preceding literature of the Parshva tradition, especially as the latter was fading. Subsequent parallel councils at Mathura (under Arya Skandila) and Vallabhpur (under Arya Nagarjuna) compiled Anga and Upanga Agamas. The final council at Vallabhpur in the 5th century CE, led by Devarddhikshamasramana, resulted in the Agamas that are available today. However, the text emphasizes that Devarddhikshama was an editor, not the creator, of these texts, which underwent further additions and modifications.

While some parts of texts like Achara-anga and Sutra-kruta-anga, Rishi-Bhashita, Uttaradhyayana, and Dashavaikalika are ancient (pre-CE), others like Samavaya-anga, Prashna-vyakarana, are later (around the 5th century CE). Similarly, some sections of Sthananga, Antakruda-dasha, Jnata, and Bhagavati are ancient, while others are later. Among Upangas, Surya-prajnapati, Raja-prashniya, and Prajnapana are considered older. The Cheda-sutras are unequivocally older than the Upangas. Some Prakirna literature is also older than certain Angas and Upangas. The entire Ardhamagadhi Agamic literature, in its final form, was compiled before the first half of the 6th century CE, though it continued to undergo additions.

The Impact of Tantra and Bhakti on Jainism

The Gupta period to the 10th-11th centuries CE was a time of decline in moral fiber and flourishing of arts across India. Jain temples were not immune to the pervasive influence of Tantra and Vamamarga, which led to the display of erotic imagery and the adoption of tantric practices. While the Buddhist monastic order was severely affected by these influences, the Jain monastic order also experienced their impact. The text states that the influence of Hinduism's devotional (Bhakti) path also affected Jainism. This resulted in the incorporation of various Hindu deities, like Yakshas and Yakshinis or guardian deities, into the Jain pantheon. Tantric rituals and methodologies were developed to seek their blessings for worldly gains. Since Tirthankaras were Vitaraga (free from passions) and unable to bestow worldly boons or vanquish evils, the Yakshas and Yakshinis were entrusted with these responsibilities, allowing the Tirthankaras to remain detached.

The fusion of Tantra and Bhakti led to the introduction of various rituals and worship forms, including elaborate pujas in Jain temples. The "Sola-hopachara" (sixteen offerings) of Hinduism influenced Jain practices, leading to the "Satra-bhedi puja" (seventeen-part puja). Jain statues were adorned with clothes and jewelry, and offerings of fruits and sweets were made. The invocation and immersion of Tirthankara or Siddha deities, mimicking Hindu rituals, also became a practice, though this influence was more pronounced in the Shvetambara tradition.

Reformist Movements and Amorphic Sects

A wave of change swept through Jainism again in the 16th century, as the spiritually-oriented Jain Dharma was becoming obscured by ritualistic practices and ostentatious worship. The simple, unpretentious devotional practices of Islam influenced both Hindus and Jains. Similar to the rise of Nguna (formless devotion) saints in Hinduism, Jainism also saw the emergence of saints who opposed ritualism and ostentatious worship.

Reformist movements arose in both Shvetambara and Digambara traditions. In the Shvetambara tradition, Lokashah opposed idol worship, religious rituals, and ostentation, leading to the formation of the Lokagachha and later the Sthanakavasi tradition in the 17th century. A further division in the 18th century led to the Shvetambara Terapanthi tradition, emphasizing pure asceticism and the principle of non-violence.

In the Digambara tradition, Banarasidas raised his voice against the Bhattaraka tradition and advocated for the prohibition of worship with living substances. Taranaswami went a step further by completely prohibiting idol worship and re-establishing the spiritual essence of Dharma. Banarasidas's lineage evolved into the Digambara Terapanth, while Taranaswami's movement became known as the Taranpanth or Samaiya. In Taranpanth temples, scriptures, not idols, were installed.

Thus, the 16th and 17th centuries saw the birth of iconoclastic sects in Jainism due to the influence of Islam. However, older traditions continued to exist. In the 20th century, Shrimad Rajachandra, a spiritual mentor to Mahatma Gandhi, inspired a new group of spiritual seekers, forming a new community.

Art and Literature Contributions in the Middle Ages

Despite the decline in monastic discipline and the prevalence of a more accommodating lifestyle in the medieval period, Jains made significant contributions to art and literature. The magnificent art and architecture of Khajuraho, Shravanabelagola, Abu (Delwada), Taranga, Ranakpur, and Devgarh, dating from the 9th to the 14th centuries, continue to inspire pride. Numerous profound philosophical and literary works were also composed during these centuries.

The text concludes by stating that Jainism has undergone numerous changes throughout the ages due to the influence of time and place, and this article has attempted to provide a brief overview of these transformations.