Jain Dharm Ki Parampara Itihas Ke Zarokhe Se - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Dharm ki Parampara Itihas ke Zarokhe se" by Sagarmal Jain, focusing on the interaction between Shraman and Vedic streams and the historical development of Jainism:

The book emphasizes Jainism's unique and significant place in world religions, highlighting its philosophical depth, extensive literature, and advanced art and architecture. It aims to explore the Jain tradition through the lens of history.

I. The Shraman Tradition and its Relationship with the Vedic Stream:

Two Major Streams: World religions are broadly categorized into Semitic (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) and Aryan (Zoroastrianism, Hinduism/Vedic, Buddhism, Jainism). Far Eastern traditions like Confucianism and Shinto are also mentioned.
Aryan Religions and the Shraman Stream: While Hinduism is considered the "pravrittimargi" (action-oriented) stream within the Aryan traditions, Jainism and Buddhism are described as "sannyasamargi" or "nivrittiparak" (renunciation-oriented). Both are identified as part of the broader Shraman tradition.
Characteristics of the Shraman Tradition: This tradition emphasizes the suffering inherent in worldly life, advocating renunciation and detachment (vairagya) as the path to liberation (nirvana). It established spiritual practices like asceticism (tapas) and yoga, along with ethical values through vows (sheel).
Reaction or Co-existence? While it's often believed that the Shraman tradition arose as a reaction to the Vedic tradition, the text suggests this is only partially true. The Vedic stream was "pravrittimargi," and the Shraman stream was "nivrittimargi." There was a struggle between the values of desire/enjoyment and renunciation. Historically, the emergence of the Shraman stream was an effort to refine the human personality and establish moral and spiritual values, with both Shramanas and Brahmanas participating.
Evidence of Early Harmony: Texts like "Rishibhashita" (Isibhasiaai) in Prakrit and "Theragatha" in Pali demonstrate the mutual respect and harmony among the sages of different spiritual streams in ancient times. "Rishibhashita," compiled around the 4th century BCE, includes teachings from 45 sages from various Shraman traditions (Nirgranth, Buddhist, Upanishadic, Ajivika) and others. Similarly, "Theragatha" contains teachings and spiritual experiences of various Shraman sages.
Interchange of Sages: The text notes that "Rishibhashita" includes figures from the Buddhist tradition (Sariputra, Vatsiputra, Mahakashyapa) as well as Upanishadic sages (Uddalaka, Yagyavalkya, Narada, Angiras) and independent Shraman thinkers (Sanjaya, Makkhali Gosala). "Theragatha" also includes figures from Jainism (Vardhamana) and the Upanishadic stream (Narada). This shows a shared intellectual and spiritual landscape.
Inclusion of Upanishadic and Sankhya-Yoga: The Shraman tradition also encompasses Upanishadic and Sankhya-Yoga streams, which later became integrated into mainstream Hinduism. Other streams like Ajivika, though now extinct, also existed.

II. The Nirgrantha Tradition and its Historical Development:

Ancient Roots: The text asserts that the Nirgrantha tradition has roots going back to Rishabha, considered the first Tirthankara. While historical details about Rishabha's philosophy are scarce, it's evident he emphasized meditation and asceticism.
Pārshva and Mahavira: The period around the 7th-6th centuries BCE was a time when people respected the teachings of various ascetics and thinkers. The Nirgrantha tradition emerged, with Pārshva's followers calling themselves Pārshvāpatyas or Nirgranthas, and Mahavira's followers calling themselves Jñātrapurya Nirgranthas. Siddhartha Gautama's followers were known as Śākya-putrīya Shramanas.
Integration of Pārshva's Tradition: It's not definitive that Pārshva's tradition was completely absorbed into Mahavira's, but a significant portion did integrate. Mahavira's tradition acknowledged Pārshva as a predecessor, evidenced by the term "puruṣādānīya" used for Pārshva.
Early Name: Nirgrantha Dharma: The ancient name of Jainism was "Nirgrantha Dharma." The term "Jain" appeared about a thousand years after Mahavira's Nirvana. Inscriptions from figures like Ashoka (3rd century BCE) and Kharavela (2nd century BCE) refer to Jainism as the Nirgrantha Sangha.
Mahavira and the Ajivika Tradition: The text discusses Mahavira's interaction with Makkhali Gosala, the founder of the Ajivika tradition. They were associated for some time, but differences in their views on determinism and self-effort led to their separation. Some scholars suggest the austerity of Mahavira's Nirgrantha tradition, particularly nudity, might have been influenced by the Ajivikas. The Ajivika tradition, with ascetics like Arjuna, was a contemporary and rival Shraman tradition that also practiced nudity. Despite rivalry, both Jain and Ajivika traditions showed mutual respect, as indicated by their classification in Buddhist texts. The Ajivika tradition persisted until after the 1st-2nd century CE.

III. Internal Developments within the Nirgrantha Sangha:

Schisms during Mahavira's Lifetime: A significant event was the ideological disagreement between Mahavira and his son-in-law Jāmāli, leading to Jāmāli's departure with 500 disciples.
Post-Mahavira Disputes: Buddhist texts mention disputes among Mahavira's monks and white-clad followers after his Nirvana, though the reasons are not detailed. This could be related to the succession issue, as there are differing views between Shvetambara and Digambara traditions on Mahavira's immediate successor.
The Nude vs. Clothed Debate: The text posits that with the integration of Pārshva's followers, two groups likely emerged within Mahavira's Sangha: the nude (Achal) and the clothed (Sachal). The dispute might have originated from these two groups, possibly categorized by different types of conduct (Samayika Charitra and Chedopasthapaniya Charitra). The Buddhist mention of "white-clad" (Shvetotara) Nirgranthas might refer to this clothed section.
Spread of the Nirgrantha Sangha: Mahavira's influence was primarily in Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. After his Nirvana, the Sangha expanded. During the period of the compilation of Agamas and the development of Tirthankara concepts, their reach was limited to Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and parts of Western Rajasthan. Arishtanemi's connection to Saurashtra and his Nirvana at Girnar suggest a broader geographical reach, though the Agamas depict Dwarka and Girnar as closer than they actually are.
Expansion to the South: The Nirgrantha Sangha spread from Bihar in two directions: south towards Tamil Nadu (via Odisha) and then to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Expulsion from Sri Lanka around the 2nd century BCE led them back to Tamil Nadu. Jain inscriptions in Tamil Nadu from the 1st-2nd century CE attest to their presence. The tradition of Acharya Bhadrabahu going south to initiate Chandragupta Maurya is mentioned, though historical evidence for this is from a later period. Tamil Jains represent an ancient tradition, while remnants of the Bihar/Bengal/Odisha tradition exist as the "Sarak" community.
Southern Achal Tradition: The Southern Nirgrantha Sangha carried with it philosophical ideas and Mahavira's strict conduct, forming the precursor to the present-day Digambara tradition.
Northern Sachal Tradition: The northern climate and the influence of Pārshva's followers contributed to the adoption of a single garment for modesty and protection from the cold. The text suggests that northerners are generally more inclined towards comfort. Similarly, in Buddhism, the Vatsiputriya monks from the northern terai region sought concessions.
Artistic Evidence from Mathura: Sculptures from Mathura (1st century CE) depict Jain ascetics wearing a single garment, used for modesty and warmth when needed, rather than continuously. They are also shown with bags for alms (similar to Shvetambara tradition) and instruments like the "rajoharan" (brush) or "mukh vastrika" (mouth cloth).
Evolution of Practices: Mahavira initially accepted alms in his hands but later used vessels, possibly due to the growing number of monks, scarcity of food from a single household, or for the care of the sick and elderly. The Mathura sculptures also show open vessels.
Division of the Sangha: The period between Mahavira's Nirvana and the Mathura period (about 500 years) saw philosophical disagreements and divisions within the Sangha into various schools (gana, shakha, kula, sambhoga). While some schisms were based on philosophical differences (e.g., Jāmāli), others might have been due to organizational reasons.
The Shvetambara and Digambara Split: The text suggests that the adoption of clothing and vessels by the northern Sangha, influenced by the Pārshvas, contrasted with the southern Achal tradition. This difference in practice, along with philosophical interpretations, likely contributed to the eventual split into Shvetambara (clothed) and Digambara (unclothed) traditions. The Shvetambara tradition originated from the lineage of Sthulibhadra, while the Digambara tradition is linked to Bhadrabahu.
The Yāpanīya Sangha: This group, which emerged from Bhadrabahu's lineage, accepted the Ardhamagadhi Agamas and believed in the possibility of liberation for women and other traditions. They also accepted clothed ascetics and the use of vessels, while simultaneously adhering to the Digambara practice of nudity.
The Role of Agamas and their Compilation: The compilation and editing of the Ardhamagadhi Agamas continued for centuries after Mahavira's Nirvana, with various councils held in Pataliputra, Mathura, and Valabhi. The current Agamas are a result of these efforts, with the final recension believed to be in the 6th century CE.

IV. Influence of Other Traditions and Reform Movements:

Tantra and Bhakti Influence: The Gupta period (roughly 4th-10th centuries CE) saw a decline in moral character and the rise of tantric and bhakti influences throughout Indian society. Jain temples also adopted some of these practices, including the worship of Yaksas and Yaksinis as protective deities.
Decline and Reform: The period of "Chaitya-vas" (monastic dwelling in temples) led to increased comfort and a departure from strict asceticism. This resulted in reform movements.
Loka Shah and the Shvetambara Reforms: Loka Shah opposed idol worship and elaborate rituals within the Shvetambara tradition, leading to the Loka-gachha. Later, the Sthanakavasi tradition emerged in the 17th century, emphasizing pure, renunciation-based living and opposing idol worship. A further division resulted in the Terapanth.
Tarana Swami and the Digambara Reforms: Tarana Swami in the Digambara tradition also advocated for the rejection of idol worship, emphasizing the spiritual essence of religion. His followers formed the Tarana-panth or Samaiya.
Influence of Islam: The advent of Islam also brought changes, particularly in its simpler, non-idolatrous approach to faith, which influenced some Jain reform movements.
Modern Movements: In the 20th century, Shrimad Rajchandra inspired a spiritual movement. Kanji Swami, studying the works of Kundakunda, led a revival of spiritual introspection in the Digambara tradition.

V. Contemporary Issues and Future Directions:

Vehicle Use and Foreign Travel: The text addresses the contemporary debate about Jain monks using vehicles and traveling abroad. While acknowledging the changing times and the need for global dissemination of Jainism, it stresses that such practices should be exceptional, regulated, and carried out with a focus on spiritual work, not tourism. Strict criteria for selection, language proficiency, and adherence to ethical principles are proposed.
Holistic Study of Indian Culture: The book concludes by emphasizing the need for a holistic and integrated approach to studying Indian culture, rather than viewing religious traditions in isolation. It highlights the importance of understanding the interrelationships and influences between different traditions, and the need to avoid misinterpretations and biases. A balanced historical perspective is crucial for resolving inter-sectarian disputes and preserving the core values of Jainism.

In essence, the book "Jain Dharm ki Parampara Itihas ke Zarokhe se" provides a detailed historical overview of Jainism, tracing its origins, its interactions with other Indian religious traditions, its internal developments and schisms, and the reform movements that shaped it over centuries, while also touching upon contemporary challenges and the need for a balanced, holistic understanding of its rich heritage.