Jain Darshan Sammat Atma - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Darshan Sammat Atma" by Premchand Jain, focusing on the concept of the soul (Atma) in Jainism and comparing it with other Indian philosophical schools:

The book "Jain Darshan Sammat Atma" by Premchand Jain delves into the philosophical understanding of the soul (Atma) within Jainism, contrasting it with the perspectives of various other Indian philosophical traditions. The author highlights the long-standing human curiosity and extensive philosophical inquiry into the nature of the soul throughout Indian intellectual history.

The text then proceeds to analyze the concept of the soul in different schools:

Charvaka Darshan: This materialist school considers only sensory perception as valid proof. Therefore, they reject the existence of heaven, hell, soul, and afterlife. For them, the world is only what is visible. They believe that consciousness arises from the combination of the four elements (earth, water, fire, air) when they form the body. This conscious body is considered the soul, which is the doer and enjoyer. Upon the destruction of the elements, consciousness also perishes, and there is no proof of a soul separate from the body. Some Charvakas consider the senses, life force (prana), or mind as the soul, or even a combination of consciousness and the inert body.
Buddhism: Buddhist philosophers deny the existence of an eternal, unchanging soul. Instead, they posit a continuous flow of consciousness or "vijnana-pravaha." This stream of consciousness is impermanent, perishing and arising moment by moment. The Buddha aimed to explain the mysteries of the soul, which he believed was the root of all evils and suffering. He rejected the concept of a permanent, separate soul, advocating a middle path. He explained that life is a stream of various states with cause-and-effect relationships, giving the illusion of continuity, much like a flame that is constantly changing yet appears unbroken. The Buddha stated that if he affirmed the existence of a soul, people would become eternalists, and if he denied it, they would become annihilationists. Therefore, he adopted a middle ground, stating that the soul is neither eternal nor annihilated but a force arising from the combination of elements (skandhas) and mind, continuously perishing and arising.
Vedanta Darshan:
- Shankaracharya (Advaita Vedanta): He believes the soul is naturally one and all-pervading but appears manifold due to limiting adjuncts like the body. Differences between subjects, knower and known, and individual soul and Brahman are considered illusions of Maya. He strongly supports the Upanishadic concept of the unity of the individual soul and Brahman. For him, the soul is the basis of all empirical activities and is proven before these activities themselves. The soul's essence cannot be negated; only extraneous things can be negated. He argues that upon realizing the illusory nature of the physical world and the body, there remains no difference between the soul and Brahman.
- Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita): According to Ramanuja, Brahman is God, and the souls and the world are His distinct and eternal "bodies." Thus, there are three distinct substances: conscious (Chit - soul), unconscious (Achit - matter), and God (Ishvara). The individual soul (Chit) is atomic in size but infinite in nature.
Samkhya Darshan: Samkhya posits two fundamental principles: Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (soul). Prakriti is inert, while Purusha is conscious and manifold. Samkhya considers the soul to be eternal, inactive, formless, conscious, the enjoyer, omnipresent, and without attributes. The Purusha is not the doer but appears to be so and enjoys the fruits of actions due to association with Prakriti. The soul is not directly the doer but merely reflects the consciousness of intelligence. The belief "I exist" proves the soul's existence. When consciousness reflects in the intellect, the soul (Purusha) identifies itself with it, leading to the experience of happiness or sorrow.
Mimamsa Darshan: Mimamsa thinkers believe the soul is the doer and enjoyer, pervasive, and present in every body. Qualities like knowledge, happiness, sorrow, and desire reside in the soul through inherent connection. The soul is not itself knowledge or happiness. Bhatta Mimamsa considers the soul to be both knowledge and inert in parts. They believe the soul is eternal despite being subject to change. It perceives knowledge through its conscious aspect and undergoes transformation through its inert aspect. Kumarila considers the soul not as consciousness itself but as one endowed with consciousness. Consciousness arises upon contact with the body and objects, but in dreams, when there is no contact with objects, consciousness is absent.
Jain Darshan: Jainism holds a significant place in Indian philosophy, with its unique doctrine of Jiva (soul) and Ajiva (non-soul). Jainism is considered a scientific philosophy, asserting that consciousness is the 'Jiva' or soul. Consciousness is the very nature of every soul. The soul is distinct from matter and is of the nature of consciousness. It is described as upayogamaya (possessing consciousness/experience), formless, the doer, the size of its body, the enjoyer, subject to the cycle of birth and death, and inherently moving upwards. Souls are compared to the sun. A soul exists only when it has consciousness; otherwise, it is considered dead. When bound by karma, the soul's power is limited. The soul is distinct from the body and pervades it, not by physical expansion but by its consciousness filling every part of the body. The soul is the controller of the body, and the senses are its instruments. A causal relationship between the body and consciousness cannot be established, as consciousness continues its activity even during sleep or unconsciousness.

Mahavira described the soul simply: "The soul is the doer and the undoer, the enjoyer of happiness and sorrow. The soul is its own friend and enemy, well-established and ill-established." The soul is characterized by knowledge, perception, conduct, austerity, energy, and experience.

Jain philosophy states that the embodied soul is proven by direct and indirect means, is of the nature of consciousness, is subject to change, is the doer, the direct enjoyer, the size of its own body, distinct in every body, and imbued with material karmas.

Jainism agrees with Buddhist philosophers that consciousness is not a product of inert matter. However, while Buddhists deny the existence of a permanent entity called the soul, believing only in a flow of consciousness, Jainism asserts the existence of a soul as a distinct entity.

Unlike Nyaya-Vaisheshika, who consider consciousness an accidental quality arising from the body and senses, Jainism sees consciousness as the inherent nature of the soul. The soul is considered parinami (subject to transformation) because it changes its states while retaining its essence, much like gold remains gold when shaped into different ornaments. This differentiates it from schools like Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vedanta, which view the soul as unchanging and immutable.

The soul is the doer and the direct enjoyer, experiencing the fruits of its actions. The embodied soul accumulates auspicious and inauspicious karma through its actions and directly experiences their consequences. This distinguishes it from Samkhya, which considers Prakriti the doer and Purusha merely an enjoyer without agency.

The soul is described as "svadeh-parimana" (the size of its own body) because its contraction and expansion are dependent on the karmic body. Souls are bound by the limitations of their physical bodies. The soul's capacity to inhabit different bodies (like an elephant or an ant) is due to its inherent ability to contract and expand. This concept of "svadeh-parimana" differentiates Jainism from schools like Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Advaita Vedanta, and Samkhya, which consider the soul to be all-pervading. The Jain view that the soul is independent within each body aligns with Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vishishtadvaita, although Advaita's concept of the soul's inherent oneness differs.

Jainism emphasizes that the soul is connected with karma, an association that is beginningless, similar to the beginningless connection of gold with impurities. Just as ingested food transforms into bodily tissues, karmic matter, when consumed by the soul, transforms into karma. This "pudgalika-adrishtavan" (endowed with unseen material qualities) aspect distinguishes Jainism from Nyaya-Vaisheshika, who consider "adrishta" (unseen karma) an attribute of the soul, and from Vedanta, which considers it an illusion.

In conclusion, Jain philosophy defines the soul as:

Conscious in nature.
Eternal (not immutable like a static entity) and subject to transformation.
The doer and enjoyer of auspicious and inauspicious karmas.
Of the size of its own body, neither atomic nor all-pervading, but of a medium magnitude.
Possessing an inherent connection with material karmas.