Jain Darshan Me Ajiv Tattva - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Darshan me Ajiv Tattva" by Pushkar Muni, focusing on the concept of the non-living (Ajiv) principle in Jain philosophy:

Jain Philosophy and the Six Substances

Jainism posits the existence of six fundamental substances (Sadravyā). These are:

Jiva (Soul/Living Being): Characterized by consciousness, knowledge, and perception.
Ajiva (Non-Living Matter): Lacking consciousness and the capacity for experiencing pleasure or pain. This is the counter-principle to Jiva.
Dharma (Principle of Motion): The medium that aids in motion.
Adharma (Principle of Rest): The medium that aids in rest.
Akasha (Space/Ether): The substance that provides space for all other substances.
Kala (Time): The principle that causes change and transformation.

The text further explains that seven principles (Sātatattva) are recognized, which include the six substances plus Asrava (influx of karma), Samvara (cessation of karma), Nirjara (shedding of karma), Bandha (bondage of karma), and Moksha (liberation). If Punya (merit) and Papa (demerit) are added to these seven, they become nine principles. Ultimately, these nine can be broadly categorized into Jiva and Ajiva.

Understanding Ajiva (Non-Living)

Ajiva, unlike Jiva, is unconscious. It does not possess knowledge, perception, or the ability to feel. The text categorizes Ajiva into two types:

Rupi (Corporeal/Material): Pudgala is the only Rupi substance. It is tangible and possesses qualities like touch, taste, smell, and color.
Arupi (Incorporeal/Immaterial): The remaining four Ajiva substances – Dharma, Adharma, Akasha, and Kala – are Arupi. In ancient literature, Rupi is referred to as "Murta" (having form) and Arupi as "Amurta" (formless).

The Interconnectedness of Substances

All six substances, including the Jiva, coexist within the Akasha (space). They occupy the same space without losing their individual nature. The text emphasizes that a Jiva can never become Ajiva, and vice versa, although they interpenetrate and provide space for each other. They constantly interact but maintain their inherent qualities.

Pudgala (Matter) in Jainism

Pudgala is equated with what other philosophical schools call the material element or what science terms "matter." In Buddhist literature, "pudgala" can refer to a stream of consciousness or the soul, but in Jainism, it primarily means "murta dravya" (corporeal substance).

Pudgala is unique among Ajiva substances because it is corporeal and has touch, taste, smell, and color. These qualities are present from the subtlest atom to the largest aggregate. While one quality might be dominant and perceptible to the senses, the others are still present, albeit in a subtle or latent state. The text uses the example of ammonia, formed from hydrogen and nitrogen, to illustrate how latent qualities become manifest. Since nothing can be created from nothing and nothing can be destroyed, the qualities inherent in atoms are also present in the aggregates formed from them.

Pudgala is subject to origination (utpāda), decay (vyaya), and permanence (dhrauvya). It undergoes transformation without ceasing to exist, similar to how a candle burns. Modern science also acknowledges that matter is conserved during physical changes.

The Atom (Parmanu) and Aggregates (Skandha)

All Pudgala is composed of atoms (paramanu), which are considered the subtlest, indivisible, and eternal units of matter. Atoms possess touch (cold/hot, dry/oily), taste, smell, and color. Their presence is inferred from the aggregates they form.

Pudgala aggregates can have a finite (sankhyāta), infinite (asankhyāta), or absolutely infinite (ananta) number of regions (pradesha). The largest aggregate is infinitely large, and the smallest is bi-atomic (dvipradeshi). An infinitely large aggregate can fit into a single region of space. Pudgala atoms are ubiquitous.

The text describes the movement of a pudgala atom, stating it can traverse the entire universe in a single moment. The existence of aggregates and atomic lineages is eternal (anadi-ananta) from the perspective of continuity, but their specific manifestations have a beginning and an end (sadi-santa).

Pudgala is divided into atoms and aggregates. Aggregates are further classified into six types based on their grossness or subtleness:

Sthula-sthula (Very Gross): Solid objects like wood, stone, metals.
Sthula (Gross): Liquid substances like water, kerosene, milk.
Sukshma-sthula (Subtle-Gross): Gases like air.
Sthula-sukshma (Gross-Subtle): Light and energy phenomena like light, shadow, darkness.
Sukshma (Subtle): Influenced by thoughts and emotions, like karmic matter (karma vargana).
Sukshma-sukshma (Very Subtle): Ultra-subtle particles like electrons.

The text identifies phenomena like shadow, darkness, and sound as manifestations of Pudgala. It differentiates between light (āp) and luminous emissions (udyota). Sound (shabda) is also considered a form of Pudgala. All Pudgala originates from the bonding of atoms possessing either oily (snigdha) or dry (ruksha) qualities. In terms of their constituent elements, all Pudgala is fundamentally similar.

Processes of Bonding and Dissociation

Pudgala aggregates are formed and modified through atomic motion. This motion is categorized as:

Visrasa Kriya: Natural motion.
Prayogika Kriya: Motion caused by external stimuli.

The bonding of atoms and aggregates occurs through three processes:

Bheda (Separation): Some atoms detach from one aggregate and join another.
Sanghata (Combination): Atoms from one aggregate combine with atoms from another.
Bheda-Sanghata (Combined Separation-Combination): Atoms are released from one aggregate and join another, remaining connected to both.

The text also describes "pudgala galana" (dissolution of matter), where aggregates break down due to internal or external causes. Pudgala is defined by its ability to be both "puran" (filling) and "galana" (dissolving).

The Nature of Atoms: Jain vs. Modern Science

The text addresses the apparent contradiction between the Jain concept of indivisible atoms and modern scientific discoveries of atomic sub-particles. It clarifies that Jainism recognizes two types of atoms:

Sukshma Paramanu (Subtle Atom): The truly indivisible, eternal, and fundamental unit.
Vyavaharika Paramanu (Practical Atom): An aggregate of many subtle atoms, which, while imperceptible to ordinary senses and unbreakable by ordinary means, can be understood in terms of its aggregate nature. Modern science's "atom" is compared to this practical atom. Therefore, the idea of atomic divisibility is accepted to a degree within the framework of the practical atom.

Qualities of Pudgala

Pudgala possesses twenty qualities, categorized as:

Sparsha (Touch): Cold, hot, dry, oily, light, heavy, soft, hard.
Rasa (Taste): Sour, sweet, bitter, astringent, pungent.
Gandha (Smell): Fragrant, foul.
Varna (Color): Black, blue, red, yellow, white.

While forms like shape and circumference exist within Pudgala, they are considered its modifications, not inherent qualities.

A single atom has one color, one smell, one taste, and two types of touch (one from the cold/hot pair and one from the dry/oily pair). However, through transformations, an atom can appear to have infinite qualities or be perceived as having only one.

Dharma and Adharma (Principles of Motion and Rest)

These principles are unique to Jain philosophy and are not discussed by other Indian schools of thought. They are described as subtle (amurta) and pervasive throughout the universe (loka).

Dharma: Assists in motion, analogous to how water helps a fish swim or railway tracks guide a train. It is a neutral cause of motion.
Adharma: Assists in rest, akin to a tree's shade providing rest to a traveler. It is a neutral cause of rest.

Both Dharma and Adharma are always present in their inherent states and modifications. They are essential for the movement and rest of Jiva and Pudgala.

Akasha (Space)

Akasha exists in both the inhabited universe (lokakasha) and the uninhabited universe (alokakasha). It provides space for all other substances to exist and coexist. The lokakasha contains all five sentient and non-sentient substances, while alokakasha is pure space with no other substances. Space is the basis for existence and movement within the universe.

Kala (Time)

Time is the cause of all transformations and changes. It is inferred rather than directly perceived. Some schools consider time a modification of Jiva and Ajiva, while Jainism recognizes it as a distinct substance. Time is described as eternal and omnipresent.

Nishchaya Kala (Ultimate Time): The eternal, formless, and unchanging reality of time.
Vyavahara Kala (Conventional Time): The perceived divisions of time such as moments, days, months, and years.

Time is not an aggregate (astikaya) but is indivisible. All events in the universe occur within a single, universal time. Each atom of time (kalanu) occupies a single region of space.

Conclusion

The text concludes by stating that the Jain philosophical analysis of the Ajiva principle, particularly Pudgala and its atomic nature, is profound and unparalleled. It also touches upon the historical debate regarding the origins of atomism, asserting that Jainism holds a distinct and fundamental view on the subject, predating and differing from the atomism of Greek philosophers like Democritus and Indian philosophers like Kanada. The detailed discussion of atoms and their qualities is highlighted as invaluable for researchers.