Jain Darshan Aur Vigyan

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the provided Jain text, "Jain Darshan aur Vigyan" by Indra Chandra Shastri:

This document, "Jain Darshan aur Vigyan" by Indra Chandra Shastri, offers a detailed exposition of Jain philosophy and its historical development, drawing connections to scientific concepts where applicable.

Core Principles and Origins:

• Meaning of Jain: The term "Jain" signifies followers of "Jina," meaning one who has conquered attachment and aversion. Such an individual is also called an "Arhat," or venerable. Hence, Jainism is also known as Arhaddharma.
• Nirgranth: Jain monks are "Nirgranth" (possessing no possessions) as they do not hold onto any property. Their path is thus called Nirgrantha Dharma.
• Jainism as Shramana Tradition: In the 6th century BCE, Indian culture had two main streams: the Brahmanical tradition emphasizing rituals and material pleasures, and the Shramana tradition emphasizing renunciation and liberation. Jainism is a principal branch of the Shramana tradition.
• Non-Creationist and Cyclical View of the Universe: Jainism does not believe in a creator God. The universe is seen as constantly changing, like a wheel, with cycles of progress and decline. This cycle is divided into twelve "aras." An upward cycle is called "Utsarpini," and a downward cycle is "Avasarpini," each with six "aras." Religion is established in the middle of each cycle. The current era is considered Avasarpini, marked by decline.

The Tirthankaras:

• Rishabhadeva: The first Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva, is considered the founder of the current Jain tradition. His descriptions appear in Bhagavata and Vedic literature, suggesting he was a universally accepted great personality. Historical dating of his era is impossible.
• Other Tirthankaras: Following Rishabhadeva, there were 23 more Tirthankaras. Neminatha, the 22nd, was a cousin of Lord Krishna, mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad. Parshvanatha, the 23rd, lived in 850 BCE and was a prince of Varanasi.
• Lord Mahavira: The last Tirthankara, Lord Mahavira, lived in 600 BCE and is the primary figure behind present-day Jainism.

Historical and Philosophical Development:

• Agama Era: The thousand years after Mahavira are known as the Agama era, during which the faith-centered Agama texts were composed. While rich in devotional content, their philosophical exposition was not systematic.
• Darshana Era: The philosophical era began in the 5th century CE.
• Sectarian Division: Shortly after Mahavira, Jainism split into the Shvetambara and Digambara sects, both of which contributed significantly to philosophical literature.
• Tattvartha Sutra: The first systematic compilation of Jain beliefs is the Tattvartha Sutra, also called Mokshashastra, authored by Umaswati or Umaswami in the 3rd century CE. It has numerous important commentaries.
• Kundakunda: Kundakunda, a prominent Digambara acharya, wrote influential works like Pravachanasara, Samayasara, and Niyamasara, offering subtle analyses of the soul and knowledge.
• Anekantavada and Syadvada: The core of Jain philosophy, Anekantavada (non-absolutism or manifold aspects), was established by acharyas like Shiddhasena Divakara (Shvetambara) and Samantabhadra (Digambara). Mahavira's concept of Nayavada (contextual viewpoints) formed the basis for Shiddhasena's Sanmatitarka, considered the first text on Anekantavada. Shiddhasena also authored Nyayavatara, the first Jain text on logic. Samantabhadra's Aptamimamsa discusses the nature of a reliable source of knowledge and refutes absolutist viewpoints, advocating for Anekantavada.
• Key Logicians and Philosophers: The text details the contributions of various acharyas:
  • Mallivadi: Author of Nayachakram and Vadanayaya, viewing different doctrines as spokes of a wheel, all containing partial truth.
  • Patrakesari: Author of Trilakshan Kadarthana, refuting Buddhist logic.
  • Akalanka (c. 800 CE): A major Digambara logician who refuted Buddhist scholars like Dignaga and Dharmakirti, establishing the Jain theory of proof (pramanas). His works include Ashtashati, Pramanasangraha, and Nyaya Vinishchaya.
  • Haribhadra Suri (Shvetambara): A prolific writer whose philosophical works include Anekaantajayapataka, Shastra Vartasamuccaya, and Shaddarshana Samuccaya.
  • Vidyānanda: Akalanka's commentator, author of Ashtasahasri and other works on logic and epistemology.
  • Manikyavadi (10th century CE): Author of Parikshamukha, the first sutra text on Jain logic.
  • Prabhachandra (11th-12th century CE): Wrote commentaries on Manikyavadi's Parikshamukha and Akalanka's Laghiyastraya.
  • Vādirāja and Jineshvara: Contributed commentaries and vārtikas on Nyayavatara.
  • Vādi Devsūri (12th century CE): A Shvetambara acharya who authored Pramananayatattvaloka, a major work responding to earlier commentaries.
  • Hemachandracharya (12th century CE): Authored Pramana Mimamsa and other works, contributing to Jain logic and grammar.
  • Yashovijaya (17th century CE): A brilliant acharya who introduced "Navya Nyaya" (New Logic) into Jainism, writing extensively on Jain epistemology and refuting other philosophical schools.

Epistemology (Knowledge and Proof):

• Nature of Knowledge: Knowledge, like light, illuminates existing reality without creating it.
• Relativity of Perception: Jainism emphasizes that all attributes perceived in objects are relative. What appears true from one perspective may not be from another, but both are valid within their respective contexts. Ultimate truth is only accessible to the omniscient.
• Types of Knowledge (Pramanas):
  • Pārokṣa (Indirect Knowledge): Moti (sensory and mental knowledge) and Shruta (scriptural knowledge).
  • Pratyakṣa (Direct Knowledge): Avadhi (clairvoyance), Manahparyaya (telepathy), and Kevala (omniscience).
  • Akalanka's Classification: Akalanka further classified pratyakṣa into Samvyavaharika (conventional, including sensory and mental knowledge) and Paramarthika (absolute, including Avadhi, Manahparyaya, and Kevala).
• Stages of Sensory Perception: The process of knowing an object through the senses involves five stages: Darshana (general awareness), Avagraha (reception by senses, with subtypes Vyanjana and Arthavagraha), Ihā (desire to know specifics), Avāya (determination of specifics), and Dhāranā (retention of knowledge as a samskara for remembrance).
• Other Indirect Knowledge: Smriti (memory), Pratyabhijñāna (recognition), Tarka (reasoning based on cause-effect or general-specific relations), and Anumāna (inference).
• Āgama (Testimony): The word of a reliable person (Āpta). Jainism considers the teachings of Tirthankaras (who are omniscient and free from passion) as authoritative Āgama. Unlike other schools, Jainism does not rely on divine revelation.

Nayas (Contextual Viewpoints):

• Seven Nayas: Jainism uses seven "Nayas" to understand reality, representing different ways of approaching and articulating truth. They move from broader to narrower perspectives:
  1. Naigama: Broadest, encompassing reality and conventional usage.
  2. Sangraha: Inclusive, gathering many objects under one category.
  3. Vyavahara: Pragmatic, focusing on conventional distinctions and classifications.
  4. Rijusūtra: Focuses on the present state of an object.
  5. Shabda: Considers variations in grammar (gender, number, case) as creating distinctions.
  6. Samabhirūḍha: Differentiates even words with similar meanings based on their specific usage.
  7. Evabhūta: Focuses on the action or function currently being performed by an object.
• Classification of Nayas: The first three are considered "Arthanayas" (meaning-based), and the last four are "Shabdanayas" (word-based). They are also divided into Dravyarthika (focusing on substance, the first four) and Paryayarthika (focusing on modes or states, the last three).

Niksphas (Categories of Categorization):

• Four Niksphas: These are ways of categorizing or naming something:
  1. Nāma Nikspha: Naming something irrespective of its current state (e.g., calling a former king "king").
  2. Sthāpanā Nikspha: Designating an object as something it represents, often through images or symbols (e.g., a statue as a deity).
  3. Dravya Nikspha: Referring to something based on its potential or past state (e.g., calling a prince "king" before his coronation, or a former official by their old title).
  4. Bhāva Nikspha: Naming based on the current quality or state (e.g., calling a person on the throne "king").

Metaphysics (Ontology):

• Six Dravyos (Substances): Jainism posits six eternal substances that form the universe:
  1. Jīvāstikāya (Soul/Consciousness): The essence of life, characterized by infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. It is formless and pervasive, capable of expanding and contracting to fit the body it inhabits. Each soul is the architect of its own destiny.
  2. Pudgalāstikāya (Matter): Analogous to Prakriti in Samkhya, it is the cause of worldly existence and experiences of pleasure and pain. It is composed of atoms and their aggregates (skandhas).
  3. Dharmāstikāya (Principle of Motion): The medium that facilitates movement.
  4. Adharmāstikāya (Principle of Rest): The medium that facilitates rest.
  5. Ākāśāstikāya (Space): The medium that provides location for all substances.
  6. Kāla (Time): The principle of change and duration.
• Astikāya: Except for time, all other substances are considered "Astikāya" (having parts or dimensions). Time is considered non-Astikāya as its units do not coexist.
• Nature of Matter: Jainism views atoms as possessing all four qualities: form, taste, smell, and touch, unlike some other schools. Changes in gross objects occur through the transformation of these qualities within the same atoms, not necessarily through the replacement of atoms themselves.

Eight Varganās (Categories of Matter):

• Matter is classified into eight categories based on the physical forms they constitute: Audārika (gross physical body), Vaiyavrikta (miraculous body of deities, hellish beings, or yogis), Āhārak (body for transferring thoughts), Bhāṣā (speech), Manas (mind), Shvāsochchhvas (breath), Taijasa (subtle luminous body), and Kārmana (karmic body, which accompanies the soul). The first three Varganās are related to specific beings and yogis, while the remaining six constitute our personality. The Kārmana body is analogous to the subtle body in Samkhya.

Ethics and Spiritual Development (Achara Mimamsa):

• Seven Tattvas (Realities): Besides the six substances, Jainism proposes seven tattvas, the first two (Jiva and Ajiva) describing the nature of the universe, and the remaining five related to spiritual development and conduct.
• Goal of Life: Moksha (liberation) is the ultimate goal, representing the full realization of the soul's inherent infinite nature.
• Karma and Its Bondage: The soul's inherent qualities are obscured by karma, which binds the soul and causes the cycle of birth, death, and suffering.
• Five Causes of Karma Influx (Āśrava): Mithyātva (false belief), Avirati (non-restraint from sinful activities), Pramāda (negligence or lack of discipline), Kaṣāya (passions: anger, pride, deceit, greed), and Yoga (activities of mind, speech, and body).
• Bondage (Bandha): Karma attaches to the soul and gains the power to produce fruits. This bondage has four aspects: Prakṛti (nature of karma), Pradeśa (extent of karma), Sthiti (duration of karma), and Anubhāva (intensity of karma).
• Eight Types of Karma: Classified into Ghāti (destructive, obscuring the soul's infinite qualities: knowledge, perception, bliss, energy) and Aghāti (non-destructive, determining lifespan, physical form, status, and sensory experiences).
• Mohaniya Karma: The "deluding karma" (Mohaniya) is most crucial for spiritual development, having two types: Darshana Mohaniya (obscuring right perception) and Charitra Mohaniya (obscuring right conduct).
• Four Stages of Mohaniya Karma: Anantānubandhi (unending association), Apratyākhyāna (non-renunciation), Pratyākhyāna (renunciation), and Sañjvalana (burning). Overcoming these leads to spiritual progress. The destruction of Sañjvalana karma leads to Kevala Jnana (omniscience).
• Samvara (Stoppage of Influx): Preventing karma influx through right faith (Samyaṅdarśana), right knowledge, and right conduct. This involves vows (vratas) observed by laypeople (Shravakas) and great vows (mahavratas) by monks.
• Nirjara (Shedding of Karma): The destruction of accumulated karma through twelve types of austerities, both external (physical discipline) and internal (mental control).
• Fourteen Guṇasthānas (Stages of Spiritual Progress): Jainism outlines 14 stages of spiritual evolution, from the undeveloped state of Mithyātva to the fully developed state of Kevala Jnana and Moksha. These stages can be achieved through two paths: Upashama Shreni (suppressing passions) and Kṣapaka Shreni (destroying passions). The text details the characteristics of several of these stages, highlighting the journey of overcoming passions and obscuring karmas.

In essence, "Jain Darshan aur Vigyan" provides a comprehensive overview of Jain philosophy, tracing its historical lineage, explaining its core doctrines like Anekantavada, its epistemology, metaphysics, and the ethical framework for achieving liberation, drawing parallels with scientific understanding where appropriate.