Jain Concept Of The Sacred - Book Summary

Here's a comprehensive summary of Professor Padmanabh S. Jaini's "Jain Concept of The Sacred," drawing from the provided text:

Core Argument: Jainism Centers Sacrality on the Self, Not a Deity

Professor Jaini begins by contrasting the Jain concept of the sacred with Mircea Eliade's definition, which posits the sacred as a power and reality distinct from the profane, manifesting in ways that reveal a "wholly other." While this framework might partially apply to certain Hindu traditions (with modifications), Jainism, being atheistic, fundamentally rejects this notion of an external, divine source of sacrality. For Jains, sacrality resides within the human being itself, both in its state of bondage and in its ultimate liberation (kaivalya). This man-centeredness is a defining feature of Jainism, directly opposing theism and the sacrality attributed to divine phenomena.

Critique of Theistic and Vedic Traditions

Jainism distinguishes itself by its claim to accurately explain the doctrines of bondage and freedom, and of a beginningless cycle of existence (samsara) and endless liberation (moksha). Jaini argues that other Indian philosophical systems, particularly the Vedantin, Samkhya, and Mimamsaka, fall short in this regard:

Vedantin: Is forced to label phenomena as illusory, suggesting bondage can be wished away by denying its reality.
Samkhya: While acknowledging souls and prakriti, renders bondage a mockery by declaring the soul (purusha) incorruptible and unchangeable.
Mimamsaka: Limits knowledge to sensory perception and declares the Vedas as the sole source of universal laws and duties, dismissing gods as mere linguistic constructs. The Vedas, for the Mimamsaka, are eternal, uncreated words (apauruşeya).

Jainism directly challenges the apauruşeya nature of the Vedas, asserting they are composed of words and thus must have human authors, akin to any other composition.

Yoga and Jainism: A Shared Ancestry?

Jainism finds common ground with the Vedic system of Yoga, particularly the Patanjala school. The term "Jina" itself describes a yogin who has achieved isolation and omniscience. Jain claims of being successors to the Indus Valley seal yogin are supported by the characteristic meditative postures of Jain Tirthankaras, contrasting with Hindu divinities. The ethical and regulatory practices of Patanjala Yoga align with Jain ascetic rules. Jaini suggests both Śramana (Jain and Buddhist) and Brahmanical traditions likely drew from an earlier, common yoga source. However, the key distinction lies in Patanjali's concept of Isvara-pranidhana (devotion to a Deity), which Jainism rejects due to its atheism.

The Rejection of an Eternally Free Deity as Guru

Patanjali's Isvara, an eternally free and omniscient "guru of gurus," is seen by Jaini as fundamentally different from human teachers like Mahavira or Buddha. The belief in an eternally free being dispensing salvation by grace is alien to Jainism. Jains, like early Buddhists, considered this concept arbitrary and the activities of such a being inconsistent with the absence of physical means of communication. They argued that reliance on such an omnipotent power makes salvation dependent on an external agency, undermining individual self-reliance. The example of Mahavira and Buddha, they contended, demonstrated that humans, formerly in bondage, could achieve perfection and omniscience through their own innate powers, independent of a deity.

Theistic Systems and the "Sacred Power"

Theistic darshanas, such as Nyaya-Vaiseṣika and the cults of Vishnu and Shiva, viewed Isvara not just as a spiritual teacher but as the "Sacred Power," the source of creation. This omniscient and omnipotent Lord created the world, dispensed divine justice, and governed destinies. The Vedas, emanating from this Lord, dictated duties based on caste (varna) and stage of life (ashrama). While the Bhagavad Gita suggests performing duties as acts of devotion can lead to salvation, Jainism criticizes this for its unquestioning acceptance of the caste system and its potential for exploitation. The widespread bhakti movements, fueled by this theism, are portrayed as assimilating diverse people and cults while accepting social injustices and external defeats.

Jainism's "Desacralized Cosmos" and Critique of Vedic Authority

In contrast to the pervasive bhakti movements, Jainism stands as a significant protest. Jain literature, particularly from the medieval period, reveals Jains as pioneers in challenging Vedic authority, disputing sacrificial efficacy, repudiating the doctrine of a Creator, ridiculing avatars, and rejecting Brahmanical rituals. Their aim was to establish a "desacralized cosmos" where they could pursue their vision of salvation, kaivalya, or isolation.

The Concept of the Āpta and the Vedas

The Jain critique of the Vedic "sacred" centers on the concept of an āpta, a reliable authority on matters of salvation. While the Mimamsaka considers the Vedas apauruşeya and thus āpta, Jains dismiss this, arguing that the Vedas, being composed of words, must have human authors. Theists attempt to bridge this by claiming the Vedas emanate as revelation from the Creator, who is the true āpta. Jainism refutes this with two main arguments:

Creation implies desire, hence imperfection: A Creator must desire to create, which indicates an imperfection.
The dilemma of karma and God: If karma determines destiny, God is irrelevant. If God rules regardless of karma, He is cruel and capricious. Therefore, a Creator is bound by passions (raga and dvesha) and cannot be free or omniscient, thus not an āpta.

Critique of Puranic Tales and Contradictions in Vedic Texts

Jains found ample evidence for their critique in the Puranas, which narrated "shocking deeds" of Hindu deities. The exploits of avatars like Narasimha and Krishna were seen as immoral. Jain logicians like Akalanka expressed indignation over the worship of the Hindu Trinity. Even when considering more definitive texts like the Vedas, Brahmanas, and Dharmaśāstras, Jains found contradictions and a lack of universal ethics. They highlight instances where injunctions against violence are contradicted by prescriptions for animal sacrifice, and where ethical rules about truth-telling and theft have caste-based exceptions.

Rejection of Rituals and Superstitions

Jainism also criticized domestic rituals like śraddha (ancestor worship through feeding Brahmins). They argued that these rituals lacked common sense and violated the law of karma, as there was no discernible causal link between performing śraddha and lineage prosperity. Furthermore, Jains rejected the idea that departed souls needed offerings for a new body, believing instead that karma automatically dictates the next incarnation. They saw no place for a "Pitṛ-loka" (world of Fathers) and considered concepts of a meeting point between the living and the dead as sources of fear and attachment.

Somadeva Suri's listing of twelve mūdhatās (follies) illustrates Jainism's rejection of many orthodox Hindu practices deemed superstitious and exploitative, such as libations to the sun, bathing during eclipses, ritual bathing, worshipping trees, and drinking cow's urine. Performing these practices, even for social acceptance, was believed to lead to the loss of samyag-darsana (true insight).

The Fourfold Refuge: The Jain Sacred

The Jain concept of the sacred is encapsulated in their most ancient litany of four saraņas (refuges) or mangalas (auspicious ones):

Arihanta (Arhat): The Worthy, the Holy One, the spiritual victor (Jina). These are ascetics who, through contemplation and exertion, have attained omniscience and liberation.
Siddha: The Perfected One, who after the Arhat's earthly life, discards all physical and karmic bonds and resides at the apex of the universe with infinite knowledge and bliss.
Sadhu: The aspirant, the ascetic who follows the path of purification and adheres to the teachings of the Arhat.
Dharma: The teachings and practices expounded by the Kevalin (omniscient one).

Self-Reliance and the Impersonal Relationship with the Jina

Jainism emphasizes that becoming an Arhat is achieved through one's own insight (darshan) and exertion (charitra), not by the grace of a higher being. Previous Teachers (Tirthankaras or "Ford-makers") serve as guides, but the line of Teachers is endless, and anyone can join it. This replaces the Yoga doctrine of a singular, eternally free Isvara with a succession of "human" Teachers.

Crucially, these Teachers do not respond to devotion (pranidhāna) or influence an aspirant's career. Their relationship with their followers is strictly impersonal. There is no concept of ishta (chosen deity). Mahavira, though a historical figure, receives the same worship as any other Jina because they all preached the same perfection. Jain laypeople worship Jina images independently of priests, viewing the act as a reminder of their true goal, fully aware of the absence of any deity.

Karma and the Irrevocability of Actions

Confessions made before a Jina image or a Sadhu do not lead to absolution because the laws of karma are irrevocable. No power, however mighty, can enable one to escape the consequences of one's own acts. While worship can lead to karmakshaya (destruction of karma), bodhi-labha (attainment of enlightenment), or samadhi-marana (holy death in meditation), the Jina does not grant worldly boons.

Karma as a Psycho-Physical Complex and the Rejection of Divine Intervention

The Jain concept of karma is a psycho-physical complex. While neither holy nor sacred, it is a formidable power that must be challenged and overcome through insight and pure conduct, not propitiated. Jain acharyas argued that Isvara and karma are incompatible. A God imbued with "sacred" powers to intervene in karma undermines universal ethics and justice, fostering fatalism rather than self-reliance. Consequently, they depicted the Hindu Trinity as "sham gods" and critically engaged with human avatars like Rama and Krishna.

Reinterpreting Rama and Krishna

The Jains ingeniously adapted the story of Rama, having Lakshmana kill Ravana to avoid Rama bearing the karmic consequences. Rama was then portrayed as renouncing the world and becoming an Arhat and Siddha. Krishna, however, fared less well. Despite attempts to portray him flatteringly and contemporary to a Tirthankara, he was ultimately sent to purgatory for his actions, with a prediction of his future emergence as a Tirthankara.

Ahimsa as the Ultimate Sacred

The Jain treatment of Rama and Krishna underscores their belief that violence (himsa) is incompatible with the sacred. Scriptures that condone violence are not holy, and individuals whose conduct causes harm are not to be emulated. Non-violence (ahimsa) is the basis of all dharma, rooted in the knowledge that all beings possess an immortal soul capable of perfection. For Jains, this seed of perfection, called samyaktva (often translated as right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, or the "Jewel of Liberation"), is the single most sacred thing. Upon this foundation, they have built an elaborate system of practices for realizing their true nature.