Jain Bhasha Darshan

This is a comprehensive summary of "Jaina Bhasha Darshan" (Jaina Philosophy of Language) by Prof. Sagar Mal Jain, based on the provided text:

Overview:

"Jaina Bhasha Darshan" is a seminal work by Prof. Sagar Mal Jain that delves into the intricate philosophy of language from a Jain perspective. The book, stemming from lectures delivered in 1983, aims to bridge the gap between contemporary linguistic analysis and the profound thought of ancient Jain thinkers. Professor Jain highlights that many fundamental questions addressed by modern philosophers of language were already contemplated by Jain scholars approximately 2000 years ago. This book is presented as a foundational work, paving the way for further comparative and critical studies in the field of Jain philosophy of language.

Key Themes and Chapters:

The book systematically explores various facets of language and its philosophical implications, divided into seven chapters:

• Chapter 1: Introduction (Vishay Pravesh)

  • The Innate Nature of Language: The chapter begins by establishing the inherent human and animal tendency for self-expression (Atma-abhivyakti) as a fundamental aspect of life, as articulated in Jainism by the principle of "Parasparopagraho Jivanam" (mutual support of souls). Language is identified as the primary tool for this expression.
  • The Development of Philosophy of Language: It traces the evolution of the philosophy of language in Western thought, moving from metaphysics in ancient Greece through theological dominance in the Middle Ages to epistemology in the modern era, culminating in the prominence of linguistic analysis in the 20th century. Key figures like Wittgenstein are mentioned for their emphasis on language as the foundation of philosophical inquiry.
  • Philosophy of Language in Indian Thought: The chapter contrasts the Western trajectory with Indian philosophy, which also started with metaphysical questions but later shifted towards ethics and then, from the 1st century CE onwards, engaged deeply with epistemological and linguistic problems. It notes the contributions of grammarians, Naiyayikas, Mimamsakas, Buddhists, and Jains to the philosophy of language.
  • The Problem of Jain Philosophy of Language: It identifies core issues addressed by Jain thinkers, including the origin and nature of language, the relationship between thought and language, the meaning of words, the relationship between words and their meanings, the concept of "Vadhyarth" (denotation), the limits of linguistic expression, the concept of "Avaktavya" (unspeakable), and the relationship between language and truth.
  • Vibhajyavada as a Precursor to Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: The chapter introduces the concept of "Vibhajyavada" (analytic method) found in Jain and Buddhist traditions. It argues that this method, which involves dissecting complex questions and providing relative answers, predates and shares similarities with modern linguistic analysis. Examples like the debate between Mahavira and Jamali on the meaning of verbs illustrate the early focus on linguistic analysis.

• Chapter 2: Language and Script (Bhasha aur Lipi)

  • Jain Perspective on the Origin of Language: Jain texts suggest that language's origin is linked to the existence of living beings ("Jivadia") and the desire for self-expression. Unlike some traditions, Jainism does not attribute language to a divine creator. The origin of language is considered co-eternal with the beginning of sentient existence.
  • Two Types of Language: Jain philosophy categorizes language into two types:
    • Aksharatmaka Bhasha (Alphabetic/Literate Language): This refers to language expressed through sounds and scripts, characteristic of humans and more developed beings.
    • Anaksharatmaka Bhasha (Non-alphabetic/Non-literate Language): This includes the communication of animals, infants, and mute individuals through various sounds and gestures.
  • Language and Thought: The chapter explores the intricate relationship between thought and language, linking it to the Jain epistemological concepts of Mati-jnana (sensory/inferential knowledge) and Shruta-jnana (scriptural/linguistic knowledge). It posits that language is generally understood as a product of thought, but also that thought processes themselves are often mediated by language, even at an implicit level.
  • The Basic Elements of Language: Language, particularly alphabetic language, is built upon sounds, which are ultimately articulated through vowels and consonants, forming letters (varnas/aksharas). The chapter discusses the definition of "akshara" as that which imparts meaning without perishing, and its different aspects: form (Sanjna-akshara), sound (Vyanjana-akshara), and meaning-comprehending power (Labdhi-akshara).
  • Script (Lipi): The origin of script is attributed to the first Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, with Brahmi script being the earliest mentioned. The chapter lists various ancient scripts mentioned in Jain texts, acknowledging the need for further research into their historical connections.

• Chapter 3: Jain Word Philosophy (Jain Shabd-Darshan)

  • Language and Words: This chapter defines "shabd" (word) as a meaningful, alphabetic sound-symbol. It differentiates words from mere sounds, emphasizing the crucial element of meaning.
  • The Nature of Words: Words are seen as products of living beings' efforts ("Prayogika") rather than generated by inanimate objects' friction ("Vaisrasika"). While sound itself is considered material (pudgala), the intentional production and comprehension of meaningful words involve conscious effort.
  • The Structure of Words: The chapter discusses the classification of sounds into vowels (swara) and consonants (vyanjana) as the fundamental building blocks of language.
  • The Meaning of Words (Vachyarth): A significant portion is dedicated to how words acquire their meaning. Jain philosophy posits that meaning is determined by inherent potential (sahaja yogyata), convention/tradition (sanketa/samaya), and usage (abhigama/parampara). It critiques theories that solely rely on inherent meaning or divine origination.
  • The Problem of "Anekarthi" (Polysemous) Words: The chapter addresses how multiple meanings of a single word are resolved, emphasizing the role of context and the speaker's intention (Vivaksa) in determining the specific meaning, a concept closely related to the Jain "Naya" theory.
  • The Debate on General (Jati) vs. Particular (Vyakti): It examines the philosophical debate on whether words primarily refer to universals (jati) or particulars (vyakti). Jainism, through its anekantavada (non-absolutism), proposes that words refer to particulars endowed with universals (jaty-anvit vyakti) or universals characterized by particulars (samanya-van vishesh).
  • The Relationship between Word and Meaning: Jain thinkers view the relationship as "Vachya-Vachak" (denotative-denotated), acknowledging a connection but rejecting absolute identity (tadatmya) or mere causal origination (tad-utpatti). They emphasize that words are symbolic representations, not the things themselves.
  • Critique of Sphota-vada and Apoha-vada: The chapter presents and critiques the "Sphota-vada" of grammarians (claiming an indivisible, meaning-revealing entity beyond sounds) and the "Apoha-vada" of Buddhists (asserting that words negate other meanings rather than affirming a positive one). Jainism counters that meaning arises from the combined understanding of conventional usage and context, without recourse to extra-linguistic entities or mere negation.
  • The Concept of "Akriti-vada" (Form Theory) and its Relation to Jainism: It discusses the idea that words refer to an "Akriti" (form or mental image) of an object. While acknowledging this concept, Jainism aligns it with its broader view of words referring to particulars qualified by universals, all within the framework of empirical reality.

• Chapter 4: Jain Sentence Philosophy (Jain Vakya-Darshan)

  • The Nature of a Sentence: Jain philosophers define a sentence as a group of mutually dependent (sakanksha) words that, when combined, form a self-sufficient unit capable of conveying complete meaning (nirapeksha samhati). This contrasts with individual words, which often require context for full comprehension.
  • Critique of Various Theories of the Sentence: The chapter examines and critiques different theories regarding the nature of sentences proposed by other Indian philosophical schools:
    • Aakhyata-pada is the Sentence: The view that the verb alone constitutes a sentence is refuted, as it generally requires other elements (like a subject) for complete meaning.
    • The Aggregation of Words is a Sentence: This theory is critiqued for overlooking the crucial element of interdependence and meaningful coherence, not just mere collection.
    • The General Element (Jati) is the Sentence: This is rejected for neglecting the role of specific words and their relation to particulars.
    • The Sentence is an Indivisible Unit: While acknowledging the sentence as a holistic unit, the critique emphasizes that this unit is constructed from interdependent parts (words).
    • Order is the Sentence: The importance of word order is recognized, but it's argued that order alone, without context and interdependence, doesn't constitute a sentence.
    • Intention Grasped by Intellect is the Sentence: This view is seen as partially correct, as intellect plays a role in understanding, but it doesn't negate the linguistic structure itself.
    • The First Word is the Sentence: This is dismissed as it oversimplifies the semantic contribution of other words in a sentence.
    • The Dependent Word is the Sentence: While recognizing the interdependence of words, this alone doesn't define the sentence, as the sentence itself is a relatively independent unit of meaning.
  • Theories of Sentence Meaning: It discusses "Abhihitanvayavada" (meaning of individual words first, then their relation) and "Anvitabhidhanavada" (meaning of related words as a whole). Jain philosophy, while appreciating the concepts of interdependence (akanksha, yogyata, sannidhi, tatparya), leans towards a more integrated understanding where sentence meaning emerges from the interplay of words within a context.

• Chapter 5: Principles of Determining Denotation: Naya and Nikshepa

  • Naya (Standpoints): This chapter elaborates on the "Naya" theory, which explains how different perspectives (standpoints) can lead to seemingly contradictory statements about reality, all of which are valid within their own context. It discusses seven Nayas: Naigama, Sangraha, Vyavahara, Rjusruta, Shabda, Samabhirudha, and Evambhut. These Nayas are crucial for understanding how the multifaceted reality is described through language.
  • Nikshepa (Categorization/Placement): Complementary to Naya, Nikshepa provides a framework for understanding how words and concepts are applied in different contexts. It categorizes terms into four types:
    • Nama-Nikshepa: Naming based on convention, without regard for etymology or inherent qualities.
    • Sthapana-Nikshepa: Imputing a name to a representation or substitute (e.g., calling a statue of a deity by the deity's name).
    • Dravya-Nikshepa: Referring to something by a name associated with its past, future, or potential state, rather than its current one.
    • Bhava-Nikshepa: Using a name that accurately reflects the present state, qualities, or function of a thing.
  • Interrelation: Both Naya and Nikshepa are presented as essential tools for accurately interpreting language and avoiding misunderstandings, particularly in resolving apparent contradictions arising from different perspectives or contextual applications of words.

• Chapter 6: The Denotative Capacity of Language (Bhasha ki Vachyata Samarthya)

  • Limited and Relative Denotation: The chapter acknowledges the inherent limitations of language. Words are seen as symbols or indicators of reality, but not as the reality itself. They can convey meaning but cannot capture the entirety of an object's essence, qualities, or states.
  • The Question of "Vachyata" (Denotability) of Existence: It delves into the idea that while language can refer to reality ("Satta"), its capacity is limited. The ultimate reality ("Param Sattva") is often considered ineffable or "Avaktavya" (unspeakable) in its absolute entirety.
  • Critique of Absolute Denotation: Jainism rejects extreme views like the Buddhist "Apoha-vada" (negation) and the Mimamsaka view of the absolute denotative power of words. It advocates for a balanced view where language points to reality but doesn't encompass it fully.
  • The Concept of "Avaktavyata" (Unspeakability): The chapter explores the concept of "Avaktavyata," which doesn't necessarily mean complete inexpressibility but rather the inability of language to capture the infinite attributes and subtle nuances of reality. This concept aligns with the Jain principle of Anekantavada, suggesting that reality is multifaceted and cannot be fully described by singular linguistic statements.

• Chapter 7: Language and Truth (Bhasha aur Satya)

  • The Nature of Truth: Truth in language is understood as the correspondence or agreement between a statement and reality. However, the chapter also acknowledges internal consistency within a statement as a criterion for truth.
  • Types of Language and Truth: Jain texts classify language into different categories based on their truth-value and intent:
    • Satya Bhasha (True Language): Statements that accurately reflect reality.
    • Asatya Bhasha (False Language): Statements that contradict reality or are based on malice.
    • Satya-Mṛṣā Bhasha (Mixed/Probable Language): Statements that have elements of both truth and falsehood, often arising from incomplete knowledge or context-dependent meanings.
    • Asatya-Amṛṣā Bhasha (Ineffable Language): Statements that cannot be definitively classified as true or false, such as commands, requests, questions, advice, and statements expressing emotions or uncertainty. This aligns with modern linguistic analysis's view of performative or expressive language.
  • The Relativization of Truth: A key Jain contribution is the understanding that truth, especially as conveyed through language, is often relative ("Sāpeksha"). Different perspectives (Nayas) can lead to different, yet valid, descriptions of the same reality. Absolute truth is acknowledged, but human language can only approximate it.
  • Vibhajyavada and Linguistic Expression: The chapter revisits Vibhajyavada as a method for presenting nuanced and context-sensitive truths, avoiding absolute pronouncements and allowing for multiple valid descriptions of reality. This is seen as a precursor to modern analytical approaches that seek to clarify the meaning and context of statements.
  • The Importance of Intent and Context: The chapter stresses that understanding the speaker's intention and the context in which a statement is made is crucial for determining its truth and meaning.

Overall Contribution:

"Jaina Bhasha Darshan" provides a systematic and profound exploration of language from a Jain philosophical standpoint. It highlights the sophisticated understanding of linguistic phenomena that existed in ancient India, particularly within the Jain tradition. The book emphasizes that language is not merely a tool for communication but also a lens through which reality is perceived and interpreted. By engaging with concepts like Naya, Nikshepa, Vibhajyavada, and the nuanced approach to truth, it offers a valuable perspective on the philosophy of language that is both historically significant and philosophically relevant.