Jain Aur Bauddh Bhikshuni Sangh

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Jain aur Bauddh Bhikshuni Sangh (Ek Tulnatmak Adhyayan)" by Dr. Arun Pratap Singh:

This book, "Jain and Buddhist Nuni Orders: A Comparative Study," is a revised and expanded version of Dr. Arun Pratap Singh's doctoral thesis, awarded by Banaras Hindu University. Published by Parshwanath Shodhpith Varanasi in 1986, it delves into a comparative analysis of the nunnery orders in Jainism and Buddhism, highlighting their organizational structures, rules, and the historical context of women's participation in ascetic traditions.

Core Argument and Significance:

The central thesis of the book is to provide a detailed comparative study of the Jain and Buddhist nunnery orders, addressing the historical underrepresentation and under-evaluation of women's contributions in ascetic traditions due to patriarchal societal structures. The author emphasizes the crucial role these nunnery orders played in the development and propagation of Jainism and Buddhism, despite the initial reluctance of figures like Lord Buddha to admit women into the monastic fold.

Key Themes and Chapters:

The book is structured into nine chapters, each focusing on specific aspects of the comparative study:

• Chapter 1: Establishment of Nunneries in Jainism and Buddhism:

  • Traces the presence of ascetic traditions in India even before Mahavir and Buddha, noting occasional references to female ascetics in Vedic and Upanishadic texts.
  • Highlights the resistance in Vedic tradition to women's renunciation in Kali Yuga.
  • Contrasts Lord Mahavir's open acceptance of women into the monastic order (Sangh) with Lord Buddha's initial reservations and eventual hesitant acceptance, largely influenced by Ananda and Mahapajapati Gotami.
  • Discusses the reasons for women's renunciation, including social factors like widowhood, lack of status, and personal spiritual inclination.
  • Compares the eligibility criteria and age requirements for admission into both orders.

• Chapter 2: Rules Regarding Food and Clothing:

  • Explains that Jain nuns generally followed the same rules as Jain monks regarding possessions, with a strong emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) influencing food and clothing practices.
  • Details the strict rules for Jain nuns concerning food acquisition (Bhiksha), listing numerous defects related to origin, production, and consumption of food.
  • Describes the types of permissible clothing materials and the prescribed number of garments for Jain nuns.
  • Discusses the dietary rules for Buddhist nuns, including the prohibition of onions, garlic, and certain foods for healthy nuns.
  • Addresses the Buddhist regulations on the permissible materials and colors of robes (cheevra).
  • Compares the dietary and clothing regulations, noting Jainism's more rigorous approach to food purity.

• Chapter 3: Rules Regarding Travel and Residence:

  • Outlines the Jain nuns' travel rules, emphasizing their movement during the eight months of the year and restrictions on traveling alone or through dangerous routes.
  • Discusses the limitations on their stay in villages and cities.
  • Details the regulations for Jain nuns during the four-month Chaturmas (monsoon retreat), including the importance of finding suitable and safe residences (upasrayas).
  • Explains the Buddhist nuns' rules for travel, including the prohibition of solitary journeys and the need for company, especially for the vulnerable.
  • Covers the Buddhist Vassa (monsoon retreat) rules, emphasizing the requirement to stay with the monastic community and the importance of attending Upavasatha (confession/recitation) and preaching sessions.
  • Compares the travel and residence rules, noting that while both had restrictions for safety, Buddhist nuns had specific obligations to attend communal religious observances with monks.

• Chapter 4: Daily Routines of Jain and Buddhist Nuns:

  • Describes the daily schedule for Jain nuns, highlighting the importance of "Shad-Avashyak" (six essential duties): Samayika (meditation/equanimity), Stavan (praise of Tirthankaras), Vandana (salutation), Pratikraman (confession/repentance), Kayotsarga (self-discipline/meditation), and Pratyakhyana (renunciation of specific items).
  • Explains the meticulous process of 'Pratikraman' and 'Pratikshalan' (cleaning of robes and utensils).
  • Outlines the daily activities of Buddhist nuns, including study, preaching, meditation, and participation in monastic rituals.
  • Notes the significance of meditation (Dhyana) and the attainment of spiritual insights.
  • Compares the routines, noting the emphasis on confession and specific daily duties in Jainism, while Buddhism focused on meditation and communal religious practices.

• Chapter 5: Rules Related to the Chastity (Sheel) of Nuns:

  • Examines the stringent measures taken by both Jain and Buddhist traditions to protect the chastity of nuns, recognizing the societal vulnerabilities faced by women renunciates.
  • Details the Jain emphasis on avoiding any form of male contact, including detailed regulations for chaperones and the use of specific clothing (Khujjaka'ni) for visually altering appearance.
  • Discusses the severe punishments for breaches of chastity in Jainism, including prayaaschitta (penance) and even expulsion.
  • Highlights the Buddhist "Eight Guru-Dharmas" (Atthagarudhammā) that governed the relationship between nuns and monks, placing nuns in a subordinate position.
  • Analyzes the specific monastic rules (prarajika, sanghadisesa, pacittiya) in Buddhism that addressed sexual misconduct and related offenses, with severe penalties for breaches.
  • Compares the strictness, noting Jainism's deep psychological analysis of potential temptations and Buddhism's emphasis on defined prohibitions and punishments.

• Chapter 6: Organizational Structure and Penal Procedure:

  • Details the hierarchical structure of the Jain nunnery system, mentioning roles like Kshullika (novice), Bhikshuni (nun), Sthavira (elder nun), Abhiseka (senior nun), Pravartini (head nun), Ganavachhedini, Ganini, and Mahattarika, with their respective duties and responsibilities.
  • Explains the different types of penances (prayaaschitta) in Jainism, categorized as 'Uddhatika' (minor) and 'Anuddhatika' (major), and the ten specific types of penance, including criticism, confession, and severe forms like 'Ched,' 'Mool,' 'Anavasthapya,' and 'Parajika.'
  • Discusses the distinction in punishments based on the rank of the nun and the severity of the offense.
  • Outlines the organizational structure of the Buddhist nunnery system, including the stages of Shramaneri (novice), Shikshamana (probationer), and Bhikshuni (fully ordained nun).
  • Details the various offenses (apatti) in Buddhism, categorized into major offenses like Parajika and Sanghadisesa, and minor offenses like Thullaccaya, Pacittiya, and Patidesaniya.
  • Explains the penal procedures in Buddhism, including the role of the Sangha (community) in determining guilt and punishment, and the concept of 'Maanatta' (a period of probation for penance).
  • Compares the organizational and penal systems, noting the more detailed hierarchical structure and graded penances in Jainism, while Buddhism had a clear distinction between major and minor offenses with distinct punishments.

• Chapter 7: Relationship between Monks and Nuns, and the Status of Nuns in the Sangha:

  • Examines the interactions and regulations governing relationships between Jain monks and nuns, emphasizing the strict separation and avoidance measures to preserve chastity.
  • Discusses the inherent hierarchical difference, with monks generally holding a superior position, even in terms of age and experience (e.g., a junior monk could be the spiritual guide for a senior nun).
  • Highlights the strict interpretation of "Purush-Jyeshthadharma" (man's seniority) in Jainism, where monks were considered superior regardless of their actual seniority in renunciation.
  • Analyzes the status of nuns in the Buddhist Sangha, again noting their subordinate position to monks, as exemplified by the Eight Guru-Dharmas.
  • Discusses the restrictions on nuns interacting with monks, the need for chaperones, and the limitations on their teaching or preaching to monks.
  • Acknowledges the inherent vulnerabilities of women renunciates and the societal factors that contributed to their subordinate status within both monastic orders.
  • Compares the relationships, noting that while both aimed for separation, Jainism's interpretation of "Purush-Jyeshthadharma" was particularly rigid, whereas Buddhism, despite its own hierarchy, allowed for some exceptions and more interaction within the monastic framework.

• Chapter 8: Development and Decline of the Nunneries:

  • Traces the geographical spread of Jain nunneries across India, supported by literary and epigraphic evidence.
  • Notes the proliferation of different Jain sub-sects (Gachhas, Kulas, Shakas) and the presence of nuns within these structures.
  • Discusses the continuity of Jain nunnery tradition, citing examples of nuns achieving 'Samadhi-marana' (peaceful death through asceticism) and continuing monastic life until much later periods.
  • Maps the historical spread of Buddhist nunneries across India, particularly in the North, West, and South, supported by inscriptions and literary mentions of prominent nuns.
  • Highlights the "Golden Age" of Buddhist nunneries from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
  • Explains the gradual decline of Buddhist nunneries from the 4th century CE onwards, attributing it to factors like changing societal norms (women gaining property rights), potential decline in the commitment of nuns, and the negative portrayal in later literature.
  • Compares the trajectories, noting the remarkable continuity of Jain nunneries while Buddhist nunneries largely disappeared from India by the 8th century CE.

• Chapter 9: Conclusion:

  • Reiterates the shared origins and early development of both Jain and Buddhist nunnery orders, stemming from the Shramana tradition.
  • Summarizes the similarities in rules regarding food, clothing, travel, and the emphasis on chastity and spiritual discipline.
  • Re-emphasizes the significant differences in their approach to women's monasticism: Jainism's initial openness versus Buddhism's initial reservations, and Jainism's remarkable continuity versus Buddhism's decline in India.
  • Attributes the continuity of Jain nunneries to their rigorous adherence to ascetic ideals, adaptability to societal changes, and the strong support from the lay community (Shravakas).
  • Suggests that the eventual decline of Buddhist nunneries may have been due to a combination of factors, including the initial reluctance of the founder, stricter rules that created a more difficult path, and possibly a disconnect from the lay community over time.
  • Concludes that the establishment of nunnery orders was a crucial historical development that provided refuge, spiritual growth, and an avenue for intellectual and social contribution for women in ancient India.

Overall Contribution:

Dr. Arun Pratap Singh's work is a pioneering attempt to provide a detailed and comparative historical account of Jain and Buddhist nunnery orders. It meticulously draws upon ancient Jain Agamas, commentaries, and inscriptions, as well as Pali Canon texts, commentaries, and archaeological findings, to reconstruct the lives, rules, and organizational structures of these important monastic communities for women. The book is a valuable resource for scholars of religious studies, gender studies, and ancient Indian history, offering a nuanced understanding of women's roles in the development of major Indian religions.