Jain Apbhramsa Katha Sahitya Ka Mulyankan - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Jain Apbhramsa katha Sahitya ka Mulyankan" by Manmal Kudal:

The book, "Jain Apbhramsa katha Sahitya ka Mulyankan" (Evaluation of Jain Apabhramsa Narrative Literature) by Manmal Kudal, explores the rich and often overlooked narrative literature written in the Apabhramsa language, with a particular focus on Jain contributions. The author highlights that Apabhramsa literature, which developed from around 300 BCE to the latter half of the 18th century CE, is extensive and primarily religious and spiritual in nature.

The text begins by acknowledging the contributions of various scholars who have studied Apabhramsa literature, noting its significance in understanding medieval literary trends and Indian civilization and culture. It categorizes Apabhramsa poetry into two main types: Prabandh Kavya (Narrative Poetry) and Muktaka Kavya (Lyric Poetry). Prabandh Kavya is further divided into Mahakavya (Epic), Ekartha Kavya (Single Theme Poetry), and Khand Kavya (Minor Poetry). Mahakavyas are then classified into Puranakavya (Mythological Epics), Charitakavya (Biographical Epics), Kathakavya (Narrative Epics), and Aitihasik Kavya (Historical Epics). Kathakavyas are specifically categorized into Premakhyan Kathakavya (Romantic Narratives), Vrittamahatmya-mulak Kathakavya (Narratives based on the glory of vows), and Upadeshatmak Kathakavya (Didactic Narratives). Muktaka Kavya is divided into Gitikavya (Songs), Dohakavya (Dohas), Chaupai Kavya (Chaupais), and Phutkar Kavya (Miscellaneous Poetry).

While Apabhramsa literature features devotional and spiritual themes, it also expresses sentiments of valor (Veer Rasa) and romance (Shringar Rasa). However, the text emphasizes that the portrayal of serenity or peace (Shant Rasa) in Apabhramsa literature, especially by Jain monks, is particularly profound and rarely matched elsewhere. It also acknowledges the presence of secular sentiments.

The core focus of the book is the evaluation of Apabhramsa narrative literature (Kathakavya). The author posits that Apabhramsa narrative poems often present folk tales in a literary form, incorporating specific motifs and reflecting various elements of folk life. The themes, emotions, meter, and style are described as being deeply rooted in the common populace. Consequently, the protagonists are not always ideal figures but can be ordinary individuals – kings, princes, merchants, Rajputs, etc. – who achieve success through their own efforts and demonstrate their character and virtues. This emergence of individual personalities is a common thread. The study of these narrative poems provides insight into social realities, as well as understanding ethnic identity and traditions within a religious and historical context.

The text then lists some prominent Apabhramsa narrative works, including:

Bhavisayattakaha by Dhanpal
Jindattakaha by Labu
Vilasa-vati Katha by Siddha Sadhraṇa
Shri-pal Katha by Rai-dhu
Siddhachakra Katha by Narasen
Saptavyasan Varjan Katha by Pt. Manikya Chandra
Bhavishyadatt Katha by Vibudha Shridhar
Sukuma-l Charitra by Shridhar
Sanat-kumar Charitra by Haribhadra Suri
Shri-pal Charitra by Damodar
Harishen Charitra

The author asserts that Apabhramsa narrative literature is as rich and extensive as that in Prakrit. Many small tales are based on vows or popular stories crafted to create religious impact. For instance, there are about a dozen works on Ravi-vrat-katha alone. Numerous unknown works are found within Apabhramsa Katha Kosh (Narrative Compendiums). The text mentions collections by Shri Chand, and others in the Digambara Jain temples in Agra, Jaipur, and Delhi. If thoroughly investigated, over a hundred independent narrative works could be available. Additionally, Apabhramsa-Prakrit mixed narratives are found in works like Acharya Nemichandra Suri's Aakhyana-mani-kosh and the commentary on Maheshwar Suri's Sangam-manjari. The author laments that this vast body of narrative literature has not yet been fully surveyed or studied, urging scholars of Indian culture to undertake this work to uncover new facts about medieval Indian civilization.

The book then proceeds to evaluate Apabhramsa narrative poems based on various literary aspects:

Vastu-varnan (Description of Subject Matter): The descriptions range from traditional enumerations to natural depictions of everyday life, reflecting popular trends. Traditional descriptions include cities, the detailed description of the body (Nakh-shikh), forests, and nature. Some works exhibit a cohesive plan creating vividness, with poignant moments integrated naturally to enhance emotional impact. Examples like the detailed battle description in Bhavisayattakaha and the portrayal of separation in Vilasa-vati Katha are cited, along with the nature description in Jindattakhyan.
Bhava-Vyanjana (Expression of Emotions): The narrative poems consistently depict human love, the interplay of worldly joys and sorrows, and the attainment of ultimate liberation. Bhavisayattakaha showcases the profound affection between a mother and son, while Vilasa-vati Katha highlights the pure love between the hero and heroine. Shri-pal and Siddhachakra Kathas explore human desires and the influence of love. Various emotional states like self-reproach, shame, repentance, wonder, enthusiasm, anger, and fear are depicted. The author provides an example of a wife remembering her husband's virtues and lamenting her fate. The psychological development, dramatic elements, flow, and expression of emotions in dialogues in Bhavisayattakaha are particularly noted.
Alankar-Yojana (Use of Figures of Speech): A wide array of figures of speech, including Upama (simile), Sandeha (doubt), Bhrantiman (mistake), Utpreksha (hyperbole), Drishtanta (example), Nidharshana (illustration), Shlesh (pun), Smaran (remembrance), Rupaka (metaphor), Vyati-reka (contrast), Pratitivastupama (comparison), Svabhavokti (natural description), Vinokti (irony), Arthantarnyas (generalization), Anuman (inference), Kavyalinga (poetic reasoning), Parisankhya (enumeration), Vibhavana (cause without effect), Visheshokti (effect without cause), Samasokti (personification), Atishayokti (exaggeration), Aprastut-prasamsa (praise by indirect reference), and Yathasankhya (orderly enumeration), are found in these works. Examples of Vinokti, Svabhava Utpreksha, and Yamak are provided.
Charitra-Chitran (Character Portrayal): The author identifies Dhanpal, Labu, and Sadhana-Siddh Sena as particularly successful in character portrayal, more so than other narrative poets. They succeeded in making ordinary individuals the heroes and illustrating their rise to eminence. The narrative poems convey a message of moving from realism towards idealism and achieving life's ultimate goal, reflecting the aspirations of the common people. They demonstrate a path to happiness and liberation even amidst life's severe hardships.
Samvad-Sanrachana (Dialogue Structure): Dialogue structures vary. Dialogues in Jindatt-katha are ornate and lyrical, while those in Bhavisayattakaha are simple, natural, and lively. Most narrative poems feature sweet and engaging dialogues, with both short and long exchanges. Dialogues are integrated within the context of settings and scenes.
Chhand Yojana (Meter and Prosody): The primary meter used is matrik chhand (syllabic meter). While Vedic meters are based on rhythm and music, they are primarily अक्षर-प्रधान (syllable-dominant). The text discusses the concept of 'Vrutta' (meter based on gana, mātrā, and accent) and 'Jati' (verse based on fixed mātrās), referencing Acharya Hemachandra's views on meter. It also notes the presence of Prakrit and folk-popular song and dialogue-based styles, with many songs written in folk styles, possessing the sweetness and flow of folk songs rather than artificial construction. Examples of folk songs and the mention of "Charchari" songs in the Sanskrit play Vikramorvashiyam are provided, along with an example of Lalita Chhand.
Bhasha (Language): Except for Jindatt Katha, the language of Apabhramsa narrative poems is generally simple, a mix of scholarly and colloquial. It incorporates common words, idioms, proverbs, and maxims, alongside a prevalence of Sanskrit-derived or modified words. Jindatt Katha shows more linguistic manipulation, with many corrupted words originating from Sanskrit. Examples of such words are given. The influence of Sanskrit is also evident in word forms, sentence structure, and pronouns. The language reflects the development of Apabhramsa by incorporating elements of spoken dialects, and poets sought to enrich Apabhramsa by using Sanskrit word forms to rival Sanskrit literature. The text notes a predominance of tadbhava (derived) and deshaj (indigenous) words over tatsama (direct borrowings) in Apabhramsa.
Shaili (Style): Similar to Prabandh Kavyas, Apabhramsa narrative poems are structured into Sandhis (chapters or sections), with some having as few as two and others as many as twenty-two. These Sandhis are composed of Kadavakas (stanzas or verses). The text mentions the tradition of "Ghaladhana" at the end of a Kadavaka. Although Kadavakas are used, there's no strict adherence to a fixed number of lines per Kadavaka, unlike Acharya Svayambhu's recommendation of eight yamakas and sixteen lines. Kadavakas can range from eight to twenty-four lines, and there's no fixed rule for the number of Kadavakas per Sandhi, though it typically ranges from ten to fourteen. Apabhramsa narrative poems use between eleven and forty-six Kadavakas.
Lok-Jeevan aur Sanskriti (Folk Life and Culture):
- (a) Religious Beliefs: Since all Apabhramsa narrative poems are by Jain poets, they naturally praise the 24 Tirthankaras, their teachings, and the path to liberation. However, they also incorporate medieval beliefs about deities, the worship of water deities (Varuna), their divine appearances, and their role in averting crises.
- (b) Omens and Dreams: Beliefs in omens, inauspicious signs, and dreams are prevalent. The text provides examples from Bhavisayattakaha and Vilasa-vati Katha describing auspicious signs and prophetic dreams.
- (c) Caste-Related Beliefs: Common caste-related beliefs are also found, such as not eating at night, not eating before seeing and worshipping deities in the morning, worshipping various deities, and observing vows.
- (d) Social Customs and Thoughts: Social customs are woven into the narrative poems. Wishes during pregnancy (Dohala) were fulfilled, child-birth was celebrated, marriages were often performed by Brahmins, and love marriages also occurred (Vilasa-vati's marriage to Sanat-kumar). Marriages were significant social events, accompanied by water sports, forest excursions, and influences from the Rajput era. Activities like hunting, animal sacrifice, and crucifixion are absent.

Finally, the author concludes that Apabhramsa literature is like "nectar" for Hindi, presenting a crucial transitional phase in language development. As Prakrit reached its peak and interacted with regional cultures, Apabhramsa gained literary acceptance. The vastness of Apabhramsa and Avahatta literature is evident in Jain Bhandaras, with hundreds of works yet to be published. This literature has enriched Hindi not only in terms of language but also in its poetic forms and narratives. The author stresses the need for comprehensive study and the compilation of a detailed history of Apabhramsa literature for the benefit of Hindi scholarship, as many Hindi word derivations and meanings are preserved in Apabhramsa.