Jain Agam Sahitya Me Varnit Das Pratha

Here's a comprehensive summary in English of the Jain text "Jain Agam Sahitya me Varnit das Pratha" by Indresh Chandrasinh:

Jain Agam Literature's Depiction of the Practice of Slavery

This study by Indresh Chandrasinh examines the practice of slavery as described in Jain Agam literature, asserting that while slavery existed in ancient India, it differed significantly from its counterparts in contemporary civilizations like Rome, Greece, and America. In contrast to the brutal treatment of slaves in those societies, Indian slaves, including those mentioned in Jain texts, were integrated into families, often living alongside family members and considered part of the household. The text highlights that even King Ashoka referred to individuals with respectful terms like "Devanpriya," suggesting a more humane approach compared to Western societies.

The Status of Slaves:

Jain acharyas (ascetics) classified slaves among the ten external possessions (bahya parigraha), deeming their use by ascetics prohibited. However, for householders (grihastha), slaves were considered a source of happiness and were categorized alongside other consumable goods. Slavery wasn't limited to kings and the elite; wealthy householders (gathapati) also employed slaves.

The primary role of slaves was service. Their situation was often described as pitiable, with the text drawing a parallel between a misguided disciple being corrected by his teacher and a slave being considered inferior. Slave owners held complete authority over their slaves. Slaves were often included in gifts or presented as part of dowries (priti-daan) during occasions like marriages, being counted alongside other members of the in-laws' family.

Causes of Slavery:

Jain Agam literature outlines several reasons for individuals becoming slaves or adopting a life of servitude:

• Birthright Slaves (Janmadas): The rights of the owner extended to the offspring of slaves. Children born to slave women were automatically considered the property of the owner, raised under their care, and initially involved in entertaining and serving the owner's children, eventually taking on more significant duties as they grew.
• Purchased Slaves (Kritadas): Royal officials and wealthy individuals acquired slaves from various countries to assist in their work. The text mentions a significant number of female slaves imported from regions like Chilati, Barbari, Vakush, Yona, Pallhava, Isanika, Lakus, Dravida, Sinhala, Arab, Pulinda, Pakkana, Bahala, Bhurunda, Shabara, and Paras. These foreign slave women were skilled in various arts, dress, and were often appointed to assist in raising royal princes, alongside eunuchs and palace attendants. The mention of these imported slaves indicates a practice of buying and selling slaves, comparable to the trade of livestock.
• War Captives (Yuddhadās): Victors in wars often captured populations from conquered territories. While some highly regarded women were taken as wives, the remaining men and women were coerced into servitude. Excess captives might have also been given as gifts or remuneration.
• Famine-Stricken Slaves (Durbhikshadas) and Debt Slaves (Rinadas): During famines, individuals who took loans for sustenance and failed to repay them often had to accept lifelong or temporary servitude. Merchants and householders lent money, and failure to repay meant choosing between debt repayment or slavery.
• Wet Nurses (Dhatri): In addition to slaves, affluent families appointed wet nurses for the care and upbringing of infants. Jain texts specifically mention slave wet nurses, categorized into five types based on their duties: those who provided milk (kshitidhatri), dressed the child (mandandhatri), bathed the child (bhajandhatri), fed the child (avdhatri), and played with the child (krida pandhatri). These wet nurses had a more elevated status than other slaves as their guidance extended beyond childhood. They were even mentioned accompanying mothers when princes renounced worldly life.

Duties of Slaves:

Slaves were integral to the functioning of households, assisting in a wide range of domestic chores. This included tasks like:

• Cleaning: Disposing of ash and cow dung, sweeping, sprinkling water on cleaned areas.
• Personal Care: Washing feet, bathing.
• Food Preparation: Grinding grains, winnowing, cooking.
• Childcare: Entertaining and playing with the owner's children.
• Religious Activities: Accompanying their mistresses to temples with worship materials.
• Security and Assistance: Serving as bodyguards and personal attendants (angaparicharika), and acting as messengers or envoys (prashya) for confidential tasks.
• Specific Roles: Some slave women assisted royal princesses in swayamvaras (marriage choice ceremonies), engaged in writing, or held mirrors to reflect the attendees, describing their virtues and flaws. Young, beautiful slave women often remained close to the owner's sons.

The Life of Slaves:

While many slave owners, adhering to the principles of Lord Mahavir's non-violence (ahimsa), treated their slaves with kindness and compassion, integrating them into their families and addressing them with respectful terms, the text also acknowledges instances of mistreatment. The Upasakadashangasmriti includes excessive labor, binding, and even killing of slaves as violations of the vow of non-violence. Some cruel owners would unnecessarily torment slaves, assigning them tasks beyond their capacity. Despite general provisions for their upkeep, slaves' freedom was curtailed, and they were often considered disposable possessions. The sale, gifting, and mistreatment of slaves, along with their lifelong subjugation, highlight their precarious socio-economic standing.

Freedom from Slavery:

Jain texts do contain references to instances where slave owners, pleased with good counsel from their slaves, granted them freedom. This freedom was often accompanied by celebrations, gifts of flowers, perfumes, garlands, and jewelry, along with arrangements for their livelihood that extended to their descendants. A significant ritual marking the manumission of a slave was the washing of their head (mastakdhot). Additionally, individuals indebted and forced into slavery could regain their freedom by repaying their loans. However, the opportunity for slaves to achieve lifelong freedom was generally limited. In most cases, slave owners treated their slaves as members of the family.