Jain Acharyo Ka Shasan Bhed

Here's a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "Jain Acharyo ka Shasan Bhed" (Schism in the Teachings of Jain Acharyas) by Jugalkishor Mukhtar, based on the provided pages:

Overall Theme:

The book, "Jain Acharyo ka Shasan Bhed," by Jugalkishor Mukhtar, delves into the historical variations and differences in the religious practices and doctrines within Jainism, particularly after the time of Lord Mahavir Swami. The author argues that the teachings and regulations within Jainism were not static but evolved over time according to the needs and understanding of the disciples and the prevailing socio-historical conditions. This book aims to shed light on these differences, fostering a deeper understanding of Jain scriptures and encouraging critical, unbiased study.

Key Arguments and Content:

1. Variations in Tirthankara's Teachings (Jain Tirthankaroka Shasan Bhed):

   • The book begins by challenging the notion that all Jain Tirthankaras preached identical doctrines without any alteration.
   • Mukhtar asserts, citing texts like Moolachar, that there were indeed variations in the teachings of Tirthankaras due to evolving needs and the changing nature of disciples.
   • This is supported by the fact that even Lord Mahavir had to make some adjustments to his teachings compared to those of Lord Parshvanath, suggesting a precedent for adaptation.
   • The author posits that differences in disciples' dispositions (e.g., inclination towards brevity or elaboration, intellectual capacity, memory) necessitated tailored teachings and regulations, including modifications in the "Moolgunas" (fundamental vows/qualities).

2. Schism Among Jain Acharyas (Post-Mahavir):

   • The central focus is on the differences that emerged among Jain Acharyas in the centuries following Lord Mahavir.
   • These differences are observed in both Digambara and Shvetambara traditions.
   • The author's intent is to provide factual clarity to Jain followers, dispelling misconceptions and promoting a true understanding of Jain scriptures.
   • Mukhtar believes that such differences, when driven by good intentions, are beneficial for the progress and vitality of the religion, encouraging deeper research into the reasons behind them and the socio-historical context.

3. The "Ashta Moolgunas" (Eight Fundamental Virtues/Vows):

   • A significant portion of the book explores the concept of "Ashta Moolgunas" for lay disciples (Shravakas).
   • The author highlights significant differences among Acharyas regarding the definition and constituents of these eight Moolgunas:
     • Samantabhadra Acharya: Defines them as the five Anuvratas (minor vows) along with abstaining from liquor (madyatyaga), meat (mamsatyaga), and honey (madhutyaga).
     • Jinasena Acharya: Modifies Samantabhadra's list by excluding honey abstinence and including abstinence from gambling (dhutatyaga) instead. The reason for this change is speculated to be regional circumstances or an attempt to incorporate all seven "vyasanas" (vices).
     • Somadeva Suri, Devsen Acharya, Kaviraj Mall, Amritchandra Suri: They replace the five Anuvratas with abstinence from the five Udumbara fruits (e.g., Kadamba, Jambu, Pippala). This is seen as a significant divergence, as the Udumbara fruits themselves are considered to contain numerous lives, and their consumption is akin to eating meat. This interpretation is deemed to "lighten" the Moolgunas and broaden their scope.
     • Amitgati Acharya: Adds "abstinence from night meals" (ratribhojan virati) to the list, making it nine Moolgunas. If "kshire-vriksha-phalavarjan" (abstinence from milk-tree fruits) is considered a single Moolguna, it reduces the count to five.
     • Pandit Ashadharji: While accepting the eight Moolgunas as described by Somadeva, he also suggests including abstinence from ghee (navneet), night meals, and un-strained water, indicating flexibility and an emphasis on broader abstinences. He also mentions another list of Moolgunas including abstinence from liquor, meat, honey, five fruits, gambling, observing the vows of saints, strained water, and cultivating compassion (jeevadaya).
   • The author notes that while some Acharyas considered the Udumbara fruit abstinence as generally accepted, it effectively subsumed meat abstinence. The shift to Udumbara fruits was likely to make the Moolgunas more universally applicable to both ascetics and laypeople, or to fit the traditional count of eight.
   • The text discusses the "namata: Shravaka" (Shravaka in name only) versus "Deshayati" (one who abstains partially), highlighting that those who simply abstain from Udumbara fruits might be considered nominal Shravakas, while true Shravakas adhere to the five Anuvratas.

4. Anuvratas and Ratribhojanvirati (Minor Vows and Abstinence from Night Meals):

   • The book defines Anuvratas as partial cessation of sinful activities, contrasting them with Mahavratas (major vows) which represent complete cessation.
   • Number of Anuvratas:
     • Most Acharyas (Samantabhadra, Kundakunda, Umaswati, Somadeva, Vasunandi, Amitgati, Hemachandra) accept five Anuvratas: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy/chastity), and Parigraha-pariman (limitation of possessions).
     • However, some Acharyas, like Pandit Ashadharji, Veernandi Acharya, and Chamundaray, included Ratribhojanvirati (abstinence from night meals) as a sixth Anuvrata.
   • Veernandi Acharya: Considered abstinence from "anna" (grain) during the night as the sixth Anuvrata.
   • Chamundaray: Extended this to abstinence from "anna," "pana" (drinks), "khadya" (food to be chewed), and "lehya" (food to be licked) during the night.
   • The author questions the rationale of making night meal abstinence equivalent to Mahavratas for householders, as ascetics also abstain from night meals as part of their practices.
   • Classifications of Lay Vows (Pratima): The text notes differences in the classification of lay vows, particularly regarding when night meal abstinence is mandated. Some Acharyas (like Vasunandi, Amitgati, Vamdev, Ashadharji) place it early in the stages of lay practice, while others (like Samantabhadra, Brahm-Nemidatta, Kaviraj Mall) designate it as the sixth Pratiima (stage of religious practice).
   • Incorporation into Ahimsa Vrata: Pujyapada and Akalankadeva argued that night meal abstinence is already encompassed within the "Alokitapanbhojan" (eating/drinking after careful inspection) aspect of the Ahimsa vrata. Mukhtar disputes this, arguing that the scope of Ahimsa Anuvrata (focusing on intentional killing of mobile beings) doesn't inherently include night meal abstinence, which requires a separate vow. He suggests this interpretation was made from the perspective of Mahavratas (ascetic practices) rather than Anuvratas (lay practices).

5. Guna Vratas (Augmenting Vows) and Shiksha Vratas (Training Vows):

   • These are considered the subsequent vows for lay disciples, totaling seven (three Guna Vratas and four Shiksha Vratas), collectively known as "Sapt Sheelavrata."
   • Guna Vratas: Aim to strengthen and augment the Anuvratas.
   • Shiksha Vratas: Primarily for training and practice.
   • Differences in Classification and Constituent Vows:
     • Kundakunda Acharya: Guna Vratas: 1. Digvrit (directional limitation), 2. Anarthadanda Virati (abstinence from purposeless/harmful actions), 3. Bhoga-upabhoga Pariman (limitation of consumption and use). Shiksha Vratas: 1. Samayika (equanimity/meditation), 2. Paushadha (fasting), 3. Atithi-pujan (honoring guests/ascetics), 4. Sallekhana (controlled fasting unto death).
     • Umaswati Acharya (and Pujyapada, Akalankadeva, Vidyananda): Guna Vratas: 1. Digvrit, 2. Desh-vrit (regional limitation - considered a new concept), 3. Anarthadanda Virati. Shiksha Vratas: 1. Samayika, 2. Paushadha-upavasa, 3. Upabhoga-pariman (moving Bhoga-upabhoga to Shiksha), 4. Atithi-samvibhaga (giving to guests/ascetics). Umaswati notably excludes Sallekhana from the twelve lay vows, treating it as a separate practice.
     • Samantabhadra Acharya: Guna Vratas: 1. Digvrit, 2. Anarthadanda Virati, 3. Bhoga-upabhoga Pariman. Shiksha Vratas: 1. Deshavakashika (similar to Desh-vrit, but placed as a Shiksha Vrata), 2. Samayika, 3. Paushadha-upavasa, 4. Vaiyavyatya (service to ascetics, broader than Atithi-samvibhaga).
     • Ashadharji: Generally follows Samantabhadra's classification but places Atithi-samvibhaga in place of Vaiyavyatya. He also emphasizes that Deshavakashika's classification as a Guna Vrata in texts like Tattvartha Sutra is a contextual interpretation to avoid numerical contradictions.
     • Swamikartikeya: Shiksha Vratas: 1. Deshavakashika (placed last), 2. Samayika, 3. Paushadha, 4. Dana (charity). He combines aspects of consumption limitation with directional control in Deshavakashika and favors "Dana" over "Vaiyavyatya."
     • Jinasena Acharya: Guna Vratas: 1. Digvrit, 2. Desh-vrit, 3. Anarthadanda Virati, 4. Bhoga-upabhoga Pariman (making it four Guna Vratas). Shiksha Vratas: 1. Samata (Samayika), 2. Paushadha Vidhi, 3. Atithi Sangraha, 4. Maranantha Chanyasa (Sallekhana).
     • Vasunandi Acharya: Shiksha Vratas: 1. Bhoga Virati, 2. Paribhoga Nivritti (dividing Bhoga-pariman into two), 3. Atithisammbhaga, 4. Sallekhana. He removes Samayika and Paushadha from Shiksha Vratas, possibly viewing them as separate "Pratimas" (stages).
   • The author repeatedly emphasizes that these variations are not contradictions of Jain principles but adaptations based on context and teaching. He likens them to different medicinal prescriptions for different ailments, adjusted by wise physicians.

Author's Stance and Conclusion:

• Jugalkishor Mukhtar's work is a scholarly endeavor to present historical facts and highlight the diversity within Jain traditions.
• He advocates for an approach free from sectarian bias, encouraging readers to critically examine the scriptures and adopt what is logical and beneficial.
• The author believes that understanding these historical divergences is crucial for the intellectual and spiritual growth of Jains, enabling them to appreciate the flexibility and adaptability of their faith.
• He concludes that while these variations exist and are natural due to changing times and disciples, the underlying core principles and the ultimate goal of liberation remain consistent across all genuine Jain teachings. The core objective of all Acharyas is to guide beings towards shedding karmic impurities and achieving spiritual purification.

In essence, "Jain Acharyo ka Shasan Bhed" is an academic exploration of the evolution of Jain doctrines and practices, demonstrating that adherence to Jainism involves understanding its historical context and the varied interpretations offered by its esteemed Acharyas.