Indian Philosophy

This is a comprehensive summary of the book "Indian Philosophy" by Sukhlal Sanghavi, based on the provided text:

Book Title: Indian Philosophy Author: Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi Publisher: L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad Translator: K. K. Dixit

This English translation of Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghavi's Gujarati work, "Bhāratīya Tattvavidyā," presents five lectures delivered as part of the Sir Sayajirao Gaekwad Honorarium Lecture Series in 1957. The book aims to provide the essence of Indian philosophy by exploring fundamental principles concerning the world, the soul, and God. The translation is praised for its lucidity and accuracy, making it a valuable resource for students of Indian philosophy.

Lecture Overview:

• Lecture One: Philosophy or the Science of Fundamental Principles - Its Origin and Its Subject-Matter (World, Soul, God)

  • This lecture defines philosophy (tattvavidyā) as the science of fundamental principles.
  • It explores the origin of philosophical speculation, stemming from humanity's innate curiosity and the incomprehensibility of the universe.
  • The lecture delves into the meaning of "tattva," encompassing both "originating cause" and "real nature."
  • It highlights the importance of "persistence-in-truth" as a core value in the pursuit of knowledge, citing examples from Upanishadic stories and the lives of Siddhartha Gautama and Mahāvīra.
  • The term "darśana" (philosophy) is investigated, explaining its derivation from "drs" (to see) and its evolution to signify supersensuous spiritual cognition.
  • It discusses the progressive nature of philosophical speculation, moving from gross to subtle, and the evolution of thought from physicalist to psychical and spiritual standpoints.
  • The lecture also touches upon the relationship between Greek and Indian philosophical speculation, noting similarities but concluding a lack of definitive evidence for direct influence. It contrasts the Western philosophical tradition, which began free from religious considerations, with the Indian tradition, where philosophy is an integral part of "darśana" and closely linked with religious sects.

• Lecture Two: The Relation of Cause and Effect: The Foundation of Philosophical Cognition and the Limitation of Knowledge-Capacity

  • This lecture establishes the cause-and-effect relationship as the bedrock of philosophical inquiry.
  • It categorizes causal relations into three levels: this-worldly, other-worldly, and unworldly, linking them to practical life, religious practices, and spiritual purification, respectively.
  • The lecture examines the distinction between the "generic" (similarity) and the "specific" (individual differences) in cognition, explaining how different philosophical schools account for them.
  • It introduces the concepts of satkāryavāda (effect exists in its cause) and asatkäryavāda (effect does not exist in its cause) and defines the four major doctrines: ārambhavāda, pariņāmavāda, pratītyasamutpādavāda, and vivartavāda.
  • The discussion shifts to the capacity of "means-of-valid-cognition" (pramāṇa), highlighting how differing views on perception, inference, and scripture lead to diverse philosophical trends. It contrasts the materialist Cārvākas (relying solely on sense-perception) with other schools that progressively incorporated inference and supra-sensuous perception.
  • The lecture differentiates between the age when independent discussion on means-of-valid-cognition was absent and the period when it flourished, leading to the development of the science of logic.
  • It outlines the characteristic features of later philosophical literature, emphasizing organized investigation, logical refutation, and the refinement of language and argumentation.

• Lecture Three: World: The Non-Conscious Element

  • This lecture focuses on the non-conscious aspect of the world.
  • It begins by outlining the different philosophical approaches to the world's origin and nature, primarily focusing on the search for a single or multiple originating causes.
  • The Cārvāka viewpoint, which identifies consciousness with physical elements, is presented, alongside the concept of bhūtas (elements).
  • The lecture explores philosophical trends seeking a "subtle cause," including those positing air, water, fire, or ether as the primary cause, and the contrasting views of sat (existent) and asat (non-existent) as originating causes.
  • The Sankhya perspective is detailed, explaining the triguṇa (sattva, rajas, tamas) theory and prakṛti as the primordial cause.
  • The brahmavāda viewpoint is presented, which posits Brahman (existence, consciousness, bliss) as the ultimate cause, distinct from the Sankhya's prakṛti.
  • The Vaiseṣika system's atomic theory and the doctrine of ārambhavāda (original creation) are discussed, contrasting it with pariņāmavāda (transformation).
  • The Jaina tradition's atomism, emphasizing the infinite nature of atoms and their transformational capacity, is contrasted with the Vaiseṣika view.
  • Various Buddhist views on the world as rūpa (matter) are examined, highlighting their emphasis on momentariness, impermanence, and the absence of an eternal bearer-of-properties. The development from sarvāstivāda to sautrāntikavāda and finally to śūnyavāda and vijñānavāda is traced.
  • The lecture compares the realistic viewpoints (Sankhya, Jaina, Vaiseṣika, Buddhist) that see the world as real with the non-realist or illusionist views of Mahāyāna and Kevaladvaita (Śankara), who consider the world to be a product of ignorance or illusion.

• Lecture Four: Soul: The Conscious Element

  • This lecture shifts focus to the conscious element, the soul (jiva or puruṣa).
  • It traces the evolution of thought regarding the soul, starting with the Carvaka doctrine that consciousness pertains to physical elements.
  • The lecture then moves to the doctrine of the soul as an independently existing entity, with a particular focus on the Jaina tradition's view of the soul as conscious, beginningless, endless, and numerous, capable of expansion and contraction.
  • A comparison is drawn between the Jaina and Sankhya-Yoga views, noting similarities in their understanding of the soul as conscious and eternal, but highlighting differences in their conceptualization of size, transformation, and the role of subtle bodies.
  • The Nyāya-Vaiseṣika perspective on the soul is then compared with the Jaina and Sankhya-Yoga views, noting their agreement on the soul's independence and multiplicity but differing on size, the nature of qualities, and the mechanism of rebirth (internal organ vs. subtle body).
  • The diverse Buddhist views on the soul are explored, starting with the common misconception of Buddhism as upholding a "no-soul" doctrine. The lecture clarifies Buddha's concept of momentariness and the aggregate of mental states (nama-rupa) as distinct from an eternal, substantial soul. It discusses the development of various Buddhist schools like sarvāstivāda, sautrāntikavāda, śūnyavāda, and vijñānavāda.
  • The Upanishadic thought-current on the soul is presented, acknowledging the diversity of views within the Upanishads and the subsequent development of different Vedantic schools (Kevaladvaita, Viśiṣṭādvaita, Dvaitādvaita, Avibhāgādvaita, Śuddhādvaita, Acintya-bhedābheda) and their differing interpretations of Brahman and the soul's relationship to it (reflection, delimitation, or identity).

• Lecture Five: The Element God

  • This lecture examines the concept of God within various Indian philosophical traditions.
  • It begins by acknowledging that the concept of God arises from the soul's inherent desire for a superior, auspicious entity and its yearning for protection and ultimate reality.
  • The lecture notes that while some traditions posit multiple non-conscious and conscious elements, leading to a conception of God as an independent entity, others, posit a single fundamental element from which both soul and God are derived.
  • The Maheśvara viewpoint, with its emphasis on Śiva, and the Nyāya-Vaiseṣika tradition's conception of God as a creator and controller, dependent on the actions of beings, are discussed.
  • The Sankhya-Yoga tradition's evolving concept of God, from a passive witness to a creator, is explored, particularly the role of sattva-guna in God's function.
  • The Madhva tradition's distinct Vedantic approach, positing God as independent and distinct from Brahman, is highlighted.
  • The lecture then focuses on traditions that do not posit a world-creating God: Pūrva-mīmāmsā (emphasizing ritualistic action), Sankhya (attributing agency to prakṛti), Jaina, and Buddhist traditions (emphasizing individual soul's effort and the emancipated soul as God).
  • The main points of contention regarding God are summarized, including whether God is a material or efficient cause, and whether His creatorship is dependent or independent.
  • The final section delves into the views of systems advocating the doctrine of Brahman, contrasting Sankara's absolute non-dualism (kevaladvaita) with the qualified non-dualism and dualism-cum-non-dualism of masters like Bhaskara, Rāmānuja, Nimbārka, Vallabhācārya, and Caitanya. The Saiva perspective of Śrikantha is also presented, identifying Brahman with Śiva and viewing Him as both material and efficient cause.

Concluding Remarks: Philosophy and Life

• This section reflects on the relationship between philosophy and life, drawing parallels with the Upanishadic hymn from the Katha Upanishad.
• It describes the progression of philosophical inquiry from understanding the external world (adhibhūta) to the internal soul (adhyatma) and ultimately to the Supreme Soul or Brahman.
• The author emphasizes that the ultimate aim of philosophy is to unravel the truth about the world, the soul, and God, leading to self-realization and spiritual progress.
• The lectures have attempted to provide a comparative study of Indian philosophical systems' views on these three fundamental topics, aiming to facilitate deeper study of original texts.
• Ultimately, philosophy inspires a vision of unity and self-similarity, fostering character development and the practice of non-violence, which are seen as crucial for individual and social life. The book concludes by highlighting the profound connection between philosophical inquiry and the pursuit of a meaningful and enlightened existence.