India As Described In Early Texts Of Buddhism And Jainism

This document is a comprehensive summary of "India As Described In Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism" by Bimala Churn Law. The book delves into the geographical, social, economic, political, and religious landscape of ancient India as depicted in the early canonical texts of Buddhism and Jainism, also drawing upon Brahmanical literature for clarification.

The summary covers the following key areas:

1. Geography:

• Jambudvipa and Bharatavarsha: The text explains the different conceptualizations of India as Jambudvipa in Buddhist texts and Bharatavarsha in Jain and Brahmanical texts, noting the wider geographical scope attributed to Jambudvipa in later traditions.
• Cosmographical Descriptions: It details the mythical geographical framework, including Mount Sumeru, the surrounding continents, and the seven mountain ranges.
• Himalayan Region: The book describes the Himalayan range, its rivers (like Ganga, Yamuna, Aciravati, Sarabhū, Mahi, Sindhu), lakes (like Anotatta), and peaks, often attributing fabulous dimensions and numbers to them.
• Topographical Outlines: Various figurative descriptions of India's shape are discussed, such as a bullock-cart, a tortoise shell, and a bow, highlighting the geographical features like mountains (Vaitādhya, Niṣadha), rivers, and their flow patterns.
• Divisions of India: The text outlines the various regional divisions of India mentioned in different texts, including Majjhimadesa (Middle Country), Uttarapatha (North-western India), Aparānta (Western India), Dakkhiņāpatha (Deccan), Pubbanta/Prācya (Eastern India), and Himavanta-padesa (Himalayan region).
• Mahājanapadas: A significant portion discusses the sixteen Mahājanapadas (great nations/kingdoms) mentioned in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya, detailing their locations, capitals, and prominent features. It also compares these with lists from Jain and Brahmanical sources.
• Specific Regions and Cities: The summary provides detailed descriptions of prominent regions and cities like Kāsī (Benares), Kosala (Śrāvastī, Ayodhyā, Sāketa), Vamśa (Kausāmbī), Ceti, Magadha (Rājagaha, Pāțaliputta), Anga (Campā), Vajjī territory (Vesālī), Malla country (Kusinārā, Pāvā), Śākya territory (Kapilavatthu), Koliya territory (Devadaha, Rāmagāma), and the various regions of Uttarāpatha (Gandhāra, Madra, Kekaya, etc.) and Aparānta (Avanti, Sūrasena, Surāştra).

2. Kings and Peoples:

• Tribal and National Divisions: The book categorizes the peoples of Jambudvīpa into various tribes and nations, differentiating between those under royal rule and those with self-governance.
• Mythical and Semi-Human Beings: It discusses the presence of Kinnaras, Kimpuruṣas, and Yakṣas, often described as semi-human beings dwelling in the Himalayan region.
• Foreign Peoples: The text details the presence of Yavanas (Yonas), identified with Ionians, Macedonians, and Bactrian Greeks, their settlements, customs, and interactions with Indian society. It also mentions Kambojas, Gandhāras, and Barbaras in the Uttarāpatha region.
• Major Kingdoms and Dynasties: It elaborates on the political landscape, highlighting the importance of the four major monarchies: Magadha, Kosala, Vamsa, and Avanti. It discusses the ruling dynasties, notable kings (like Bimbisāra, Ajātasattu, Pasenadi, Udena, Caṇḍapajjota), their contemporary relationships, and their eventual integration into larger empires.
• Oligarchical Republics: The text pays considerable attention to the republican constitutions of the Vajjis (Licchavis) and Mallas, describing their governance, social structures, and conflicts.
• Social Hierarchy: The book touches upon the social stratification, including Khattiyas (warrior class), Brāhmaṇas, Vaisyas, and Śūdras, and the distinction between Aryans and Mlecchas. It also discusses the concept of 'low tribes' (hīnajātis) and their occupations.
• Key Figures: It recounts the stories and significance of prominent figures like Buddha, Mahāvīra, and various kings and sages, highlighting their interactions and influence.

3. Social Life and Economic Conditions:

• Social Grades: The book details the four main social grades (vanna) – Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya (Rājañña), Vaiśya (Vessa), and Śūdra – and their theoretical and practical implementations, including the concept of purity of birth.
• Brahminical Order: It provides a critical examination of the Brahminical class, their various occupations (teachers, priests, physicians, traders, soldiers), their economic reliance on gifts and fees, and their adherence to or deviation from ideals. It categorizes Brahmins into different types, such as those resembling Brahma, gods, those adhering to tradition, and those living vulgar lives.
• Khattiya Role: The Khattiyas are described as the ruling class, expected to be warriors and administrators, with variations in governance from monarchies to oligarchies.
• Vessas and Gahapatis: The text focuses on the Vessas, particularly the gahapatis (bankers and wealthy merchants), their significant economic influence, trade practices, and social customs.
• Craftsmen and Guilds: It discusses the organization of craftsmen into guilds (senis, pūgas) and the segregation of different professions.
• Urban and Rural Life: The book describes the cities, towns, and villages, including their infrastructure, agricultural practices, crops grown, and domestic animals.
• Trade and Commerce: A detailed account of both inland and foreign trade is presented, including trade routes (Dakkhiņāpatha, Uttarāpatha), types of merchandise, the role of caravan merchants (Satthavāhā), maritime trade with Babylonia, Burma, Ceylon, and China, and the common trade goods.
• Currency and Economy: The text mentions the use of coins (kahāpaṇa, māsaka, etc.) as the medium of exchange, alongside barter, and discusses loans, money-lending, and hoarding practices.
• Social Issues: It touches upon the existence of prostitution, slave trade, and various forms of punishment for criminals. It also discusses the concept of famine and epidemics.

4. Religion:

• Popular Religion (Devadhamma): The book outlines the prevalent folk religion based on Bhakti, characterized by vows, worship of personal gods and goddesses (devas, devatās), and a give-and-take principle. It lists various objects of popular worship, including gods, demigods, heroes, and even animals.
• Hierarchies of Deities: It explains the Buddhist and Jain hierarchies of celestial beings, including various classes of devas, brahma-realms, and the concept of a supreme Buddha or Jina.
• Brahmanical Practices: The text details the practices of secular Brahmanism, including sacrifices (like Aśvamedha, Puruṣamedha), invocation of Vedic deities (Indra, Soma, Varuna), and the performance of rituals.
• Ascetic Orders (Tāpasas, Paribbājakas, Samaņas): It provides a comprehensive overview of various ascetic orders, their philosophical views (eternalism, determinism, atheism, skepticism), their practices concerning food and clothing, their hermitages, and their modes of life. It highlights the differences and similarities between Brahmins, Kṣatriyas, and other groups who took to asceticism.
• Role of Brahmins in Religion: The book discusses the role of Brahmins as priests, their influence on kings, and their involvement in popular religious practices, including astrology and divination.
• Buddhist and Jain Counter-Movements: It explains how Buddhism and Jainism offered alternative paths, emphasizing ethics, meditation, and the doctrine of Karma and rebirth, while also sometimes incorporating or adapting popular beliefs and practices.
• Social Impact of Religion: The text notes how religions influenced social reforms, promoted Ahimsā (non-violence), and addressed societal issues like slavery and the status of women.
• Penances and Yoga: It discusses the various forms of penances (tapas) and Yoga practices, including the attainment of psychic powers and the popular belief in miracles.
• Rationalization of Religious Experiences: The book highlights the tendency during the Samaṇa-Brāhmaṇa period to rationalize religious experiences and the emergence of philosophical debates.
• Martyrdom and Propaganda: It touches upon instances of martyrdom among ascetics and the use of stories of heavens and hells to encourage moral conduct.
• Influence on Social Orthodoxy: The book points out how Buddhism, by opposing certain practices like cow-sacrifice and beef-eating, indirectly contributed to social orthodoxy.

Overall, Bimala Churn Law's "India As Described In Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism" provides a rich and detailed picture of ancient Indian civilization, drawing extensively from the foundational texts of two major religions to reconstruct its multifaceted landscape.