History Of Vegitarianism And Cow Veneration In India

Here is a comprehensive summary of the Jain text "The History of Vegetarianism and Cow-Veneration in India" by Ludwig Alsdorf, translated by Bal Patil, revised by Nichola Hayton, and edited by Willem Bollée:

Overall Scope and Significance:

This influential study by Ludwig Alsdorf, made available in English for the first time, delves into the historical development of two pivotal concepts in Indian religion: vegetarianism and cow-veneration. The book, first published in German in 1962, employs a rigorous historical methodology to analyze the complex evolution of these practices, their relationship with religious thought and custom, and their impact on Indian society. The editor, Willem Bollée, has enhanced the English edition with additional notes, a bibliography, and four relevant articles, providing a modern perspective on Alsdorf's foundational work.

Key Themes and Arguments:

• Distinction between Ahimsā and Vegetarianism: Alsdorf emphasizes that while intertwined, ahimsā (non-violence) and vegetarianism are not inherently the same. Ahimsā, in its earliest form, stemmed from a "magico-ritualistic" dread of harming life, which was an all-Indian religious development. Later, ahimsā increasingly restricted meat consumption.
• Historical Layers in Legal Texts: The book meticulously analyzes the evolution of vegetarianism and cow-veneration through Indian legal literature, particularly the Dharmasūtras, Dharmaśāstras (like Manu), and later commentaries. Alsdorf identifies distinct historical stages within these texts, often marked by contradictions that he interprets as chronological developments.
  • Early Vedic Period: Meat-eating, including that of cattle, was common, especially in ritual sacrifices, as the act of killing for sacrifice was not discredited.
  • Emergence of Ahimsā: The concept of ahimsā gradually began to limit meat consumption. While ahimsā was propagated as an ideal for all, even Brahmin ascetics initially continued to eat meat.
  • Reform Religions (Jainism and Buddhism): These religions, arising in the 6th century BCE, played a significant role in promoting ahimsā. However, Alsdorf notes that the Buddha was not a vegetarian, nor did he forbid meat-eating to his monks under certain conditions (e.g., if the animal was not killed specifically for them). Similarly, early Jain texts show instances of monks accepting meat.
  • Jainism's Strictness: Modern Jains, both monks and laypeople, are depicted as the strictest vegetarians, for whom ahimsā is the highest religious command, extended even to vermin. Alsdorf traces the historical roots of this strictness, noting how early canonical texts, while ambiguous, suggest a shift towards prohibition.
  • Brahminical Texts (Manu): Alsdorf analyzes the Manusmṛti, showing how it presents a progression from permitted meat-eating (with distinctions between "kosher" and "non-kosher" animals) to compromises and eventually to strong advocacy for vegetarianism. He highlights the contradictions within Manu, which he interprets as stages of historical development, such as the levirate custom, where older rules are juxtaposed with newer prohibitions.
  • Mahābhārata: The epic literature, particularly the didactic sections, reflects the peak of the debate between animal sacrifice and ahimsā, meat-eating and vegetarianism. Alsdorf notes the "pious hunter" defending meat-eating and sacrifice, and later, more radical arguments for uncompromising vegetarianism, even rejecting sacrificial meat.
  • Later Legal Texts and Commentaries: Later Smṛtis and commentaries, like the Yājñavalkyasmṛti and the Māhābhārata, show a decrease in the discussion of meat and sacrifice, indicating that the incompatibility of ahimsā and sacrifice was becoming less of a central issue as ahimsā gained prominence. Commentators attempted to harmonize these contradictions, often by reinterpreting older rules or declaring them inapplicable to the current age (kaliyuga).
• Cow-Veneration: Alsdorf separates cow-veneration from ahimsā, though they became closely linked. He notes the special position of cattle in Vedic texts, including their consumption of beef, even in later periods. The prohibition of cattle-killing became more pronounced over time, leading to the economic problem of an overpopulation of unproductive cattle. Alsdorf traces the development of cow-veneration, noting that while its origins are complex and potentially pre-Aryan, it became deeply embedded in Hindu practice. He critically examines Gandhi's interpretation, suggesting it might be inadequate in explaining the historical roots, noting the absence of cow-worship in early Vedic times.
• Origins of Ahimsā: Alsdorf explores the difficult question of ahimsā's ultimate origins. He speculates that ahimsā, alongside other non-Aryan traits, might have roots in the pre-Aryan Indus Valley Civilization. This hypothesis is presented as an attempt to explain the fundamental nature of ahimsā as a "magical life-taboo" rather than purely ethical.
• The Role of Sacrifice: A central theme is the intricate relationship between animal sacrifice and the development of ahimsā. Alsdorf argues that the ahimsā movement within Jainism and Buddhism was partly a reaction against the perceived degeneration of the Brahminical sacrifice system and the arrogance of its proponents. However, he also suggests that the Vedic ritual itself contained elements of ahimsā in its efforts to mitigate or symbolically neutralize the act of killing.
• Appendices and Their Contributions: The appendices feature critical reviews and articles that further explore the themes:
  • J.C. Heesterman's Review: Heesterman praises Alsdorf's historical approach but questions the strict chronological layering of texts, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of Indian cultural "juxtaposition of opposites." He proposes that the monk's sinless life is enabled by the layman's sin, drawing parallels to the Vedic sacrifice and the interplay between renouncer and householder roles.
  • Hanns-Peter Schmidt's "The Origin of Ahimsā": Schmidt argues that Alsdorf may have conflated ahimsā with vegetarianism. He traces ahimsā's roots to Brahmins, particularly renouncers, and emphasizes its "magico-ritualistic" background rooted in fear and the breakdown of the Vedic worldview, rather than purely ethical motives. He also engages with debates on the etymology of ahimsā and the development of the asrama system.
  • Hanns-Peter Schmidt's "Ahimsā and Rebirth": This article further explores the shared ideas of ahimsā and rebirth in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, suggesting a common source. Schmidt analyzes the evolution of the ātman doctrine and its connection to ahimsā and renunciation, arguing that the fear of consequences and the desire to escape rebirth were key motivators, rather than purely ethical considerations. He also critiques the idea of pre-Aryan origins for ahimsā, favoring a pan-Indian spiritual movement.
  • H.R. Kapadia's "Prohibition of Flesh-Eating in Jainism": Kapadia firmly establishes Jainism's unequivocal prohibition of flesh-eating, viewing it as contrary to the core principles of ahimsā, samyama, and tapas. He addresses the historical debate about early Jain monks consuming meat, citing canonical passages and Jacobi's later interpretation that the term māṁsa and matsya in certain texts metaphorically refer to fruits or substances with bones, rather than literal meat and fish.

Overall Impact:

Alsdorf's "The History of Vegetarianism and Cow-Veneration in India" remains a seminal work for scholars of Religious Studies, Asian Studies, and History. It provides a rigorous, historically grounded analysis of the complex and often contradictory development of these fundamental Indian religious concepts, highlighting the gradual shift from ritualistic justifications for meat-eating and animal sacrifice towards the pervasive ideal of ahimsā and the sanctity of the cow. The inclusion of supplementary articles and the editor's notes further enrich the study, making it an indispensable resource for understanding the deep historical roots of these enduring Indian traditions.