History Of Jaina Monachism - Book Summary

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "History of Jaina Monachism" by S.B. Deo, based on the provided pages:

Overall Scope and Purpose:

The book, "History of Jaina Monachism (from Inscriptions and Literature)," authored by S.B. Deo and published by the Deccan College Research Institute in 1954, aims to provide a detailed historical account of Jain monachism. It draws upon both literary and epigraphical sources to trace its evolution, practices, and social impact in India. The author intends to analyze Jaina literature, its influence on other aspects of Indian life, and the contemporary practice of monastic life.

Part I: Indian Monachism and Its General Principles

India as the Homeland of Monachism: India is presented as the origin of monachism and ascetic practices, characterized by a diverse range of seclusion, self-mortification, and world-renunciation for spiritual ideals.
Definition of Monachism: Monachism, derived from the Greek word for "alone," involves monks and nuns living in solitude, separated from society.
Motives for Monastic Life: Renunciation is driven by ideals of salvation and eternal happiness for the world, spiritual problem-solving (as seen in cases of queens and youth), and the realization of the misery and impermanence of worldly existence.
Indian Approach to Life: Indian ascetic literature emphasizes the emptiness and impermanence of worldly existence, portraying human life as transient. This leads to a yearning to escape the cycle of birth and rebirth.
Purpose of Monastic Life: Beyond mere escape, monastic life aimed at realizing reality, understanding one's true self, and achieving liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). This realization is described as positive joy, consciousness, or self-knowledge, varying across different Indian monachistic traditions.
Nature of Liberation:
- Buddhist Nirvana: Described as "going out" or "extinction," it signifies the complete destruction of greed, hatred, and infatuation, leading to the end of cravings. It's a state of enlightenment, contentment, and peace.
- Jaina Siddhatva: The soul attains its original pure nature by stopping (samvara) the influx of karmic particles and destroying (nirjara) existing karma. This leads to incomparable happiness and liberation from decay, death, and suffering. The path involves right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.
- Brahmanical Moksha: Its conception evolved, with Upanishads describing it as beholding the self as the Lord of all, and the Bhagavad Gita presenting it as freedom from evil action, desire, and pairs of opposites. Different schools offered varied interpretations, like Cārvāka's absolute freedom and Advaita's aloofness from ignorance.
Means to Attain Liberation: Rigorous monastic life was the primary means to achieve self-realization and escape the cycle of birth and rebirth. Poverty, non-attachment, and indifference to the body were considered essential.
Essentials of Indian Monachism: Religions played a crucial role in evolving ethical standards and structured life systems like the Brahmanical Ashrama theory and the Jaina Upāsaka Pratimās, preparing individuals for monastic life. Indian monachism was largely individualistic, allowing monks to practice asceticism alone or in groups, leading to the rise of numerous sects.
Essentials of Western Monachism: Contrasted with Indian monachism, Western monachism lacks a preparatory scheme for monkhood. Liberation is seen as a gift of God's grace, beyond mere human effort. Monastic life is an image of heavenly life, and monastic stay is essential for recognition. This emphasis on monastic organization contributed to systematic development in the West, while its absence in India led to independent sects.
Common Basis of Indian Monachisms: Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism share common approaches to life (viewing it as drudgery and seeking liberation), ethical foundations (vows like ahimsa, satya, etc.), and ideas regarding karma, rebirth, and liberation. This shared ground led some scholars to believe Buddhism and Jainism were mere offshoots of Brahmanism.
Brahmanical Monachism: Characterized by elasticity, it housed numerous sects, but this led to a weakening of a central binding force. It also had limitations regarding women and lower classes entering monastic orders.
Buddhist Monachism: Emphasized equality of birth and status, revolted against Vedic ritualism and self-mortification, advocating a "middle path." It was devoid of mortificatory practices and focused on organizing itself with elaborate monastic jurisprudence. Buddha initially resisted admitting women but eventually consented to the order of nuns.
Jaina Monachism: Characterized by stricter monastic behavior, severe mortificatory practices (fasting), extreme adherence to Ahimsa, and the practice of nudity (Digambaras). Jainism, from the beginning, allowed women full scope in spiritual aspirations. Practices like "loya" (uprooting hair) symbolized self-control and least dependence on society. Jaina leaders maintained constant touch with the laity, contributing to its preservation and moral discipline.

Part II: The Historical Background to Jaina Monachism

Jaina Tradition and Antiquity: Jainas attribute remote antiquity to their religion, revealed by twenty-four Tirthankaras.
Rishabha (Rṣabha): The first Tirthankara, considered a founder of civilization, taught seventy-two arts to men and sixty-four to women. He renounced the world, achieved omniscience, and had a large following. His life, like the later Ashrama theory, is seen as a model.
Successors of Rishabha: Twenty-three Tirthankaras followed, but their historicity is largely traditional, with Mathura inscriptions providing some support for antiquity. Brahmanical texts like the Vishnu and Bhagavata Purāņas also mention Rishabha, though their accounts are later and not always corroborated.
Pārsva: The twenty-third Tirthankara, flourishing around the 8th century BC, is considered historically plausible due to a moderate lifespan and a 250-year gap with Mahāvira. His religion was called "Cāujjāma dhamma" (four-fold path: abstinence from violence, untruth, stealing, and possession). His followers were allowed to wear clothes. He had a significant following, including royal patrons.
Mahāvīra: The twenty-fourth Tirthankara, contemporary with Buddha. He is seen as a reformer of an existing Jaina faith, emphasizing a stricter code of discipline, including celibacy and nudity. His teachings were delivered in Ardhamāgadhi. He had a large following, including royal patrons, and faced schisms within his lifetime. The exact date of his death is debated, with 467 BC being favored by some scholars.
Schisms: Mahāvīra's Church faced several schisms, the most significant being the Digambara-Svetambara split, with differing traditional accounts for its origin.
Spread of Jainism: The book details the spread of Jainism across various regions of India, including North India (Mauryas, Kushanas, Guptas, Pratiharas, Candellas, Gāhadvālas, Paramāras), Deccan, Karnatak, Gujarat, and South India (Pandyas, Pallavas, Cholas, Vijayanagara). Royal patronage played a significant role in its dissemination, although periods of decline and persecution also occurred.
Epigraphical Evidence: Inscriptions provide crucial data, especially from dynasties like the Mauryas (Khāravela), Kṣatrapas, Guptas, Cālukyas, Rāṣṭrakūṭas, Hoysalas, and others, confirming the presence and influence of Jainism in various regions.
Khāravela: The Chedi king of Kalinga (2nd century BC) is highlighted as a devout Jaina who made Jainism a state religion, actively promoted its spread, and recovered a Jina image stolen by the Nanda king. His inscription is a key epigraphical evidence.
Mauryan Period: Chandragupta Maurya's alleged Jain affiliation and migration to South India with Bhadrabāhu are discussed. Aśoka's reign shows a broader religious tolerance, with influences of Jaina doctrines on his edicts. Samprati, Aśoka's grandson, is credited with significantly patronizing and spreading Jainism, particularly in Central India and South India.
Influence of Gacchas and Scholars: The post-canonical period saw the rise of various Gacchas and influential scholars like Bhadrabāhu, Devardhi, Hemacandra, Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, and Akalanka, who enriched Jaina literature and maintained the faith.
Sthānakavāsin Sect: This branch of Svetambara Jainism emerged due to a reaction against idol worship, influenced by Muslim non-idolatry. They differ from mainstream Svetambaras in their acceptance of certain texts and their strict adherence to practices like the constant use of the muhapatti.
Digambara Monachism: Characterized by nudity, strict adherence to non-possession, and a simpler mode of life. Early Digambara texts like the Mulācāra and Pravacanasara highlight rigorous asceticism, including sleeping on bare ground, using a peacock-feather broom, and eating food in the palms of the hand.

Part III: The Chedasūtras, Niryuktis, and Other Canonical Texts

This part delves into the details of monastic life as described in these texts, focusing on:

The Church: Organization, hierarchy (officers like ācārya, upādhyāya, gaṇāvacchedaka), and units (gaṇa, kula, sambhoga, gaccha). The rules of seniority, succession, and punishments (prāyaścitta) are detailed, revealing a blend of strictness and concessions for emergencies.
Monastic Jurisprudence: Specific punishments like 'cheda' (loss of rank), 'parihara' (isolation), 'mūla' (re-initiation), 'anavaṭṭhappā' (temporary expulsion), and 'pārañciya' (expulsion) are explained with contexts and examples. The text highlights the importance of confession ('alocanā') and the careful selection of those who administer it.
Touring: Rigorous rules governed the monks' wandering lives, including avoiding certain places, people, and times to prevent injury to living beings ('ahimsā'). The proper mode of travel, staying during the rainy season, and seeking and returning residences are meticulously described.
Clothing and Nudity: While nudity is associated with Digambaras, the Chedasūtras for Svetāmbaras show a nuanced approach, allowing clothes for protection but emphasizing non-attachment. The rules for obtaining, using, washing, and even stitching clothes are detailed, along with the distinction between Jinakalpikas and Sthānakalpakas.
Requisites: A wide array of articles used by monks, from the begging bowl ('pāya') and broom ('rajoharana') to the mouthpiece ('muhapatti') and bedding ('santhara'), are described with specific rules for their acquisition, use, and maintenance. The Niryuktis amplify these details, showing a more practical and sometimes socially adjusted approach.
Begging and Food: This section provides extensive rules on 'esaṇā' (purity of food), 'udgama' (preparation faults), 'utpādana' (improper behavior in seeking food), and 'miśra' (mixed food). The strict adherence to 'ahimsā' is evident in the detailed avoidance of food associated with potential harm to living beings. Exceptions and concessions for illness and emergencies are also noted.
Penance and Fasting: Various forms of penance and fasting, including 'padimās' (long-term practices), 'āyāmbilavaddhamāna,' 'gunarāyana,' and others, are described. While the fundamentals remained, there's a suggestion of a decrease in the practice of extremely harsh penances over time.
Supernatural Powers and Superstition: Post-canonical texts, particularly Niryuktis and commentaries, refer to monks using spells, magic, and displaying supernatural abilities. While the canonical texts generally discouraged these, later texts suggest a prevalence of such practices, possibly influenced by societal norms or a desire for influence.
Death and Funeral Rites: The texts detail proper and improper modes of death, emphasizing voluntary death through fasting ('samlehanā') for those seeking liberation. Funeral rites were generally simple, with a focus on avoiding harm to living beings and maintaining social decorum.
Moral Discipline and Self-Control: The core tenets of ahimsa, satya, asteya, aparigraha, and brahmacarya are reinforced. Self-control ('sañyama') through the five 'samitis' and three 'guptis' is central. The twenty-two 'parīşahas' (hardships) were to be endured with equanimity. The texts highlight the importance of confessing faults ('ālocanā') and the various expiatory punishments ('prāyaścittas') prescribed for transgressions, indicating a structured system of church discipline.
Comparison between Svetāmbara and Digambara Monachism: The book notes similarities in fundamental moral philosophy but highlights differences in practice, particularly regarding nudity (Digambaras) versus clothing (Svetāmbaras), the use of the muhapatti, and the number/type of requisites. The Digambara Church is presented as less organized in its early textual representation compared to the more detailed administrative structures in Svetāmbara canonical texts.
Subsects and Gacchas: The development of various subsects and Gacchas within both major traditions is noted, reflecting the adaptation of Jaina monachism to local environments and social conditions.

Key Themes and Characteristics:

Rigorous Asceticism: The book consistently emphasizes the extremely disciplined and austere nature of Jaina monastic life, involving strict adherence to vows, fasting, mortification of the body, and minimal possessions.
Ahimsā (Non-Violence): This principle is paramount, influencing nearly every aspect of a monk's life, from movement and eating to the handling of requisites. The detailed rules are aimed at preventing the slightest harm to any living being.
Non-Attachment (Aparigraha): The core principle of non-possession extends to all aspects of life, from limiting the number of requisites to cultivating indifference towards the body and worldly comforts.
Social Consciousness and Adaptation: While maintaining core religious principles, Jaina monasticism also showed an awareness of social customs, public opinion, and local environments, allowing for certain exceptions and adaptations to ensure its survival and spread.
Importance of the Guru and Hierarchy: The texts detail a structured church hierarchy with defined roles for ācāryas, upādhyāyas, and other officers, emphasizing respect, obedience, and guidance within the community.
Literary and Scholarly Activity: Post-canonical literature reveals a vibrant intellectual tradition, with monks producing extensive works on philosophy, grammar, logic, history, and even practical sciences, contributing significantly to Jaina literature.

This summary provides a foundational understanding of the "History of Jaina Monachism" by S.B. Deo, covering its historical context, fundamental principles, the detailed rules of monastic life, and the development of its organizational structures and practices as presented in the provided text.