History Of Indian Philosophy

The provided text is the first volume of Surendranath Dasgupta's "A History of Indian Philosophy," published by Cambridge University Press in 1922. This comprehensive summary focuses on the content presented in the provided pages, which primarily cover introductory material and the early phases of Indian philosophical thought, including Vedic philosophy, Upanishads, Buddhism, and an introduction to Jainism.

Key Themes and Structure:

The volume aims to provide a systematic understanding of ancient Indian thought, emphasizing its philosophical achievements. Dasgupta highlights the essential unity of India's progress and civilization found in its philosophical thought, arguing that it forms the nucleus around which the best of India has grown. He also stresses the relevance of ancient Indian philosophy to modern thought, as many of the problems debated by Indian thinkers are identical to those discussed by Western philosophers.

Introduction and Early Vedic Thought (Chapters I-II):

• Introduction (Chapter I): Dasgupta addresses the imperfect understanding of ancient Indian philosophical achievements, even within India. He discusses the difficulties in studying Indian philosophy, including the complexity of Sanskrit technical terms, the condensation of expression, and the allusions to other systems. He refutes the notion that Indian thought is merely mythological or abstract, asserting its systematic nature and its parallels with Western thought. He also touches upon the lack of precise historical records but argues that sufficient chronological data exists to trace the development of systems. He outlines the plan for the first volume, which will cover Buddhist, Jaina, and the six orthodox Hindu systems: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
• The Vedas, Brahmanas, and their Philosophy (Chapter II): This chapter delves into the foundational texts of Indian thought.
  • Vedas: Dasgupta discusses their antiquity, their central place in Hindu thought, and their classification into Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. He notes the faithful transmission of Vedic literature through oral tradition.
  • Samhitas: He describes the four Samhitas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), highlighting the Rig-Veda as likely the earliest and the Atharva-Veda's focus on spells and incantations.
  • Brahmanas: These theological treatises explain the rituals, reflecting an age where intellectual activity centered on sacrifice, leading to elaborate rituals, symbolism, and speculative thought.
  • Aranyakas: Described as "forest treatises," these works shift towards meditation and symbolic representations, paving the way for Upanishadic thought.
  • Rig-Veda Civilization: Dasgupta details the socio-economic and religious life of the Vedic Aryans, noting their progress in cattle-keeping, agriculture, craftsmanship, and their profound spiritual and religious bent.
  • Vedic Gods: He describes the gods as personifications of nature's powers, contrasting them with the later Puranic deities.
  • Polytheism, Henotheism, and Monotheism: He explains the transition from polytheism through henotheism (Max Müller's term) to monotheistic tendencies, citing deities like Prajapati and Vishvakarma.
  • Brahman: The concept of Brahman, initially linked to sacrifice, evolves in the Brahmanas and Aranyakas as a supreme principle.
  • Sacrifice and the Law of Karma: Dasgupta highlights the magical potency attributed to sacrifices and the meticulous performance required, noting the emergence of the concept of rita (cosmic order) and the nascent ideas of the law of karma.
  • Cosmogony: He discusses mythological and philosophical views on the creation of the universe, referencing hymns like the Purusha Sukta and the Nasadiya Sukta, and the philosophical yearning for understanding the origin of the world.
  • Eschatology and the Doctrine of Atman: He traces the early beliefs about the soul's existence after death and the nascent ideas of transmigration, noting the evolving meaning of Atman from vital breath to the inmost self.

The Upanishads (Chapter III):

• Place and Names: Dasgupta explains the Upanishads as the concluding part of the Vedas (Vedanta), often appended to Aranyakas. He notes their approach to classical Sanskrit and their culminating nature of intellectual achievement. He mentions the influence of Kshatriyas in the development of Upanishadic thought.
• Brāhmaṇas and Early Upanishads: He marks the transition from ritualistic to speculative thought, where meditation begins to supplant sacrifices, and the focus shifts from external worship to internal speculation.
• Meaning of Upanishad: Derived from "sitting near," it signifies secret instruction given by a teacher to deserving pupils.
• Composition and Growth: The Upanishads, initially in prose, evolved, with earlier ones being more archaic and mystical. He discusses the impact of the Upanishads on European thought, citing Schopenhauer's enthusiasm.
• Interpretations and Quest for Brahman: Dasgupta highlights the diverse interpretations by Indian scholars due to the scattered nature of ideas in the Upanishads. The central theme is the quest for Brahman, the underlying unchangeable reality, identified with the Atman (self) within man. He details the struggle and failures in defining Brahman, leading to the negative method (neti neti).
• The Ātman Doctrine: The core equation Atman = Brahman is presented. The Atman is described as the inmost essence, pure bliss, and consciousness, beyond empirical attributes. The famous anecdote of Indra and Virochana illustrates the progressive understanding of the Atman.
• Brahman in the Upanishads: Brahman is presented as the ultimate reality, immanent and transcendent, the cause and sustainer of the universe. While some passages suggest dualistic traits, the dominant current is monistic.
• The World: The universe is seen as emanating from Brahman, sustained by it, and returning to it, with a tension between its perceived reality and its ultimate unreality from the Brahmanic perspective.
• The World-Soul: Early references to a world-soul are scarce in earlier Upanishads, but later texts like Svetashvatara mention Hiranyagarbha.
• Theory of Causation: Dasgupta notes the absence of a systematic theory of causation, but points to examples suggesting Satkaryavada (the effect pre-exists in the cause), foreshadowing later philosophical developments.
• Doctrine of Transmigration: The Upanishads clearly develop the concept of transmigration (pitryāna and devayāna), outlining the paths of the fathers and gods, and the cycle of rebirth driven by desires and karma, though the emphasis shifts from karma to desire as the primary cause.
• Emancipation (Mukti): Emancipation is presented as the state of infiniteness achieved through self-knowledge, leading to the realization of Atman = Brahman. It's not an acquired state but the realization of one's true nature, the destruction of ignorance and desires. The story of Naciketas in the Katha Upanishad exemplifies the quest for this ultimate knowledge.

General Observations on Indian Philosophy (Chapter IV):

• History of Indian Philosophy: Dasgupta reiterates the challenges in writing a history due to the sutra style of writing, the need for oral instruction, and the continuous commentary tradition. He emphasizes studying systems holistically, considering their development through historical conflicts.
• Growth of Philosophic Literature: He notes the early philosophical inquiries in the Upanishads and the potential influence of non-Brahmanic circles. The formation of philosophical systems is attributed to discussions and refutations of rival schools, culminating in sutra compositions.
• Indian Systems: He outlines the classification of nastika (Buddhist, Jaina, Cārvāka) and astika (Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Vaisesika) schools. He introduces Samkhya and Yoga as closely related, Nyaya and Vaisesika as often merged, and Mimamsa as primarily focused on ritual interpretation.
• Fundamental Points of Agreement:
  • Karma Theory: All orthodox systems agree on the theory of karma and rebirth, where actions have unseen consequences (adṛṣṭa or apurva).
  • Doctrine of Mukti: All systems agree that liberation (mukti) is the ultimate goal, attainable through self-realization and the cessation of desire-driven actions.
  • Doctrine of Soul: Except for Buddhism, all systems admit a permanent, pure soul (ātman, puruṣa, jīva) whose impurities obscure its true nature.
  • Pessimism and Optimism: A shared pessimistic view of worldly existence as sorrowful is contrasted with an optimistic faith in the ultimate goal of liberation and self-realization.
  • Unity in Sadhana: Despite philosophical differences, there's a fundamental unity in the ethical conduct (sadhana) prescribed for spiritual practice, emphasizing self-control, non-violence (ahimsa), and the pursuit of wisdom.

Buddhist Philosophy (Chapter V):

• State of Philosophy Before Buddha: Dasgupta describes the intellectual landscape, including Upanishadic doctrines, materialistic Cārvākas, and the deterministic Ajivikas, highlighting a philosophical deadlock that Buddha addressed.
• Buddha's Life: He recounts the life of Gautama Buddha, his renunciation, quest for enlightenment, and his teachings.
• Early Buddhist Literature: He details the Pāli scriptures (Sutta, Vinaya, Abhidhamma) and the five Nikayas, noting the importance of the Suttas for doctrine and the Abhidhamma for scholastic elaboration.
• Doctrine of Causal Connection (Pratītyasamutpāda): A central concept, explaining the causal chain of suffering from ignorance (avijjā) to decay and death (jarā-marana).
• The Khandhas: The Buddhist denial of a permanent self (ātman) is explained through the analysis of existence into five aggregates (khandhas): rūpa (matter), vedanā (feeling), saññā (perception), sankhāra (mental formations), and vijñāna (consciousness).
• Avijjā and Āsava: Ignorance (avijjā) and defilements (āsava) are discussed as root causes of suffering, with āsavas classified into desire for sensual pleasures, desire for existence, heretical views, and ignorance itself.
• Sila and Samadhi: The ethical foundation of Buddhism is presented through śīla (moral discipline) and samādhi (mental concentration), leading to wisdom (paññā) and ultimately Nirvana.
• Kamma: The Buddhist understanding of karma is closely linked to desire (taṇhā), with actions (kamma) being of body, speech, and mind, driven by volition (cetanā).
• Nibbana: The ultimate goal, Nirvana, is described as the cessation of all sorrow, a state beyond conceptualization, neither annihilation nor eternal existence.
• Upanishads and Buddhism: Dasgupta contrasts the Buddhist denial of a permanent ātman and its emphasis on impermanence and sorrow with the Upanishadic concept of an eternal, blissful Atman.
• Schools of Theravada Buddhism: He briefly mentions the historical development of different Buddhist schools (Mahāsanghikas, Sarvāstivādins, Sautrāntikas, Vaibhāṣikas, Yogācāra, Madhyamika) and their varying philosophical contributions, noting that the Theravada doctrines found in Pali are the most accessible.
• Mahāyānism: He explains the distinction between Hinayana and Mahāyāna, highlighting Mahāyāna's emphasis on universal salvation and the doctrine of Śūnyavāda (voidness).
• Tathatā Philosophy of Aśvaghoşa: He discusses Aśvaghoṣa's idealist philosophy, emphasizing bhūtatathatā (thatness) as the ultimate reality, a concept with potential Upanishadic parallels.
• Madhyamika or Śūnyavāda School: Nāgārjuna's doctrine of voidness is presented as the logical culmination of Buddhist thought, asserting the essencelessness of all phenomena.
• Vijñānavāda Buddhism: This idealistic school posits that all phenomena are constructs of consciousness, with ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) as the underlying principle.
• Sautrāntika Theory of Perception and Inference: Dasgupta details the Sautrāntika focus on direct perception of internal mental states (svalakṣaṇa) and inference based on vyāpti (concomitance).
• Doctrine of Momentariness: The Buddhist emphasis on the impermanence (kṣaṇika) of all phenomena is explained, where existence is defined by causal efficiency (arthakriyākāritva).
• Ontological Problems: He briefly touches upon Buddhist views on causality, the whole-part problem, universals, and the denial of inherent nature (svabhāva).
• Evolution of Buddhist Thought: A summary tracing the development from early emphasis on the Four Noble Truths and Pratītyasamutpāda to Mahāyāna's Śūnyavāda and Vijñānavāda.

Jaina Philosophy (Chapter VI):

• Origin of Jainism: Dasgupta establishes Jainism's antiquity, contemporary status with Buddhism, and its independent development, mentioning the Tirthankaras and the schism between Svetambaras and Digambaras.
• Jaina Literature: He outlines the canonical and non-canonical literature, including the Angas, Upangas, and independent treatises, noting the Digambara claim of lost originals.
• General Characteristics: He describes the strict ethical code, particularly ahimsa (non-violence), and its impact on Jaina practices and professions.
• Life of Mahāvīra: A brief account of Mahāvīra's life as the last Tirthankara.
• Fundamental Ideas of Jaina Ontology: The Jaina view of being (sat) as a combination of the permanent and the changing is explained, reconciling extremes of Vedānta and Buddhism.
• Doctrine of Relative Pluralism (Anekāntavāda): This core doctrine asserts that all affirmations are true only under certain conditions and limitations, leading to the doctrine of Syādvāda.
• Doctrine of Syādvāda: The principle of "may be" (syāt) is explained, allowing for manifold, often contradictory, truths about a thing depending on the standpoint (naya).
• Knowledge, its Value, Theory of Perception: Knowledge is valued for its utility in achieving practical ends. Perception (pratyakṣa) is considered direct and determinate, revealing external objects as they are, with the self (jiva) as the knowing subject. This contrasts with Buddhist views.
• Non-Perceptual Knowledge (Parokşa): This includes inference, recognition, etc., considered less vivid than perception.
• Knowledge as Revelation: The Jain view emphasizes self-knowledge and the removal of ignorance through rigorous ethical and meditative practices.
• The Jīvas: Souls (jivas) are described as eternal, infinite, and occupying space-points, distinct from the body and distinct from each other.
• Karma Theory: The Jain understanding of karma as subtle matter that adheres to the soul, causing bondage, is detailed, along with āsrava (influx of karma) and nirjarā (purging of karma).
• Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma, Ākāśa, Kāla: These non-living categories of Jain ontology are explained.
• Jaina Cosmography and Yoga: The eternal nature of the world and the Jaina path to liberation through knowledge, faith, and conduct (jñāna, śraddha, caritra) are presented.
• Anti-theistic Arguments: Dasgupta extensively details the Jain arguments against the existence of a creator God, challenging the Nyaya's reasoning.
• Mokşa (Emancipation): Liberation is achieved through the annihilation of karma, leading to the soul's pure state of infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and power.

Samkhya and Yoga Philosophy (Chapter VII):

• Review: Dasgupta positions Samkhya and Yoga as responses to the Vedic sacrificial creed and the heterodox schools of Buddhism and Jainism. He notes their shared goal of liberation and their emphasis on ethical conduct and knowledge.
• Samkhya in the Upanishads: He explores potential Sāmkhya ideas in Upanishadic texts, particularly the concept of a detached purusha and the evolution of Prakriti, though he cautions against definitive claims.
• Samkhya and Yoga Literature: He outlines the key texts and commentaries, including the Samkhya Karika, Samkhya Sutras, and Yoga Sutras of Patañjali, and their commentators.
• Early School of Samkhya (Caraka): He discusses Caraka's medical text, which contains an early form of Sāmkhya, differing from the later orthodox atheistic Sāmkhya in some aspects, notably the inclusion of purusha as conscious and the identification of Prakriti with purusha.
• Samkhya of Pañcaśikha and Caraka: He highlights the importance of these early versions, suggesting a transitional stage between Upanishadic thought and later Sāmkhya.
• Changes in Sāmkhya Doctrine: He traces the evolution from a potentially theistic early Sāmkhya to atheistic Sāmkhya and then the theistic Yoga of Patañjali.
• The Gunas: The three fundamental constituents—sattva, rajas, and tamas—are described as subtle substances or feelings that constitute all reality through their combinations and interactions.
• Prakriti and its Evolution: The concept of Prakriti as a state of equilibrium of the gunas disturbed by purusha's teleology is central. The evolutionary process is seen as a differentiation and integration of these gunas.
• Pralaya and Disturbance of Prakriti Equilibrium: The cosmic dissolution and re-creation cycles are explained, driven by the inherent purpose of Prakriti and the accumulated karmas of purushas.
• Mahat and Ahamkara: The evolution from Prakriti to Mahat (the great one) and then to Ahamkara (ego) is detailed, forming the basis for the development of senses and elements.
• Tanmatras and Paramāņus: The subtle potentials (tanmatras) and gross atoms (paramāņus) are described as the building blocks of the material world, evolving from Prakriti through bhūtādi.
• Principle of Causation and Conservation of Energy: Sāmkhya-Yoga's view of causation (Satkāryavāda) is explained, where effects pre-exist in the cause, and change is a transformation of the cause.
• Samkhya Atheism and Yoga Theism: The key difference is highlighted: Sāmkhya's atheism versus Yoga's theism, with Īśvara in Yoga as an eternally emancipated purusha who initiates creation.
• Buddhi and Purusa: The relationship between the non-intelligent buddhi and the conscious purusha is explored, including the role of reflection and the concept of ignorance (avidyā) as the root of bondage.
• Cognitive Process and Citta: The stages of perception from indeterminate to determinate, the role of manas (mind), and the nature of citta (mind-stuff) with its ingrained impressions (samskāras) and tendencies (vāsanās) are discussed.
• Sorrow and its Dissolution: The Sāmkhya-Yoga view of pervasive sorrow and its eradication through knowledge and dissociation of purusha from Prakriti is presented.
• Yoga Purificatory Practices (Parikarma): The eight limbs of Yoga (yama, niyama, asana, prāṇāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraṇā, dhyāna, samādhi) are described as the path to liberation.
• Yoga Meditation: The stages of concentration, from preliminary (upacāra) to achieved (appanā), and the progression through different jhānas are detailed.
• Emancipation: The ultimate goal is the isolation of purusha from Prakriti, leading to a state of pure consciousness and freedom from suffering.

Nyaya-Vaiseṣika Philosophy (Chapters VIII-IX):

• Criticism of Buddhism and Samkhya: The chapter begins with Nyaya-Vaiseṣika's critiques of Buddhist momentariness and Sāmkhya's theories of causation and the nature of purusha.
• Antiquity of Nyaya and Vaiseṣika: Dasgupta discusses the challenges in dating these systems, suggesting pre-Buddhistic origins for Vaiseṣika and a complex history for Nyaya, possibly influenced by early Buddhist logic and later Hindu arguments.
• Vaiśeṣika's relation to Mimāmsā: He explores the intriguing possibility that Vaiseṣika might have originated from an older school of Mimāmsā, due to shared emphasis on Dharma and Vedic authority.
• Philosophy in the Vaiseṣika Sutras: The core categories (padārthas)—Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), Karma (action), Samanya (generality), Visesa (particularity), and Samavaya (inherence)—are introduced, with detailed discussions on the nature of atoms, space, time, and soul.
• The Six Padarthas: Detailed descriptions of each category are provided, including their properties, eternality, and causal relationships.
• Theory of Being (Sat): The Jain reconciliation of permanence and change is contrasted with Nyaya-Vaiseṣika's more common-sense realism, where things exist independently of perception.
• The Jivas: Souls are described as eternal, all-pervading, and distinct entities, with their pure state obscured by karma.
• Karma Theory: The Jain concept of karma as subtle matter adhering to the soul, causing bondage and transmigration, is explained, along with the processes of āsrava and nirjarā.
• Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma, Ākāśa, Kāla: These non-living categories are presented, with emphasis on their unique Jain interpretations, such as dharma and adharma as principles of motion and rest, and ākāśa as a positive, pervasive entity.
• Jaina Cosmography and Yoga: The eternal universe and the path to liberation through the "three jewels" (right knowledge, faith, conduct) are outlined.
• Moksha (Emancipation): Liberation is the ultimate goal, achieved by annihilating karma and realizing the soul's pure, infinite nature.

Overall, Dasgupta's "A History of Indian Philosophy, Volume I" offers a scholarly and systematic exploration of the foundational elements of Indian philosophical thought, meticulously tracing the origins and development of key concepts and schools, with a particular focus on their historical context and interrelationships.