Historical Development Of Jaina Philosophy And Religious

Here's a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, "Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion" by Sagarmal Jain:

The book argues against the notion that Indian philosophies and religions are static, asserting that Jainism, like other Indian traditions, has undergone significant historical changes and developments in its thought and practice. While core tenets like non-violence and self-control have remained constant, their explanations and applications have evolved over time, influenced by Tirthankaras and Ācāryas.

Key Periods and Developments:

• Early Period (Pre-3rd Century AD):

  • Reforms by Tirthankaras: Successive Tirthankaras introduced reforms based on the needs of their respective ages. Lord Aristanemi emphasized avoiding violence in social rituals, Lord Pārsva opposed violence in religious austerities, and Lord Mahāvira identified the accumulation of wealth and worldly enjoyment as the root cause of violence, stressing celibacy and non-possession.
  • The Agama Age (c. 5th Century BC - 3rd Century AD): Primarily focused on moral conduct and religious codes, with philosophical discussions present but scattered. Agamic texts, Niryuktis, Bhāṣyas, and Cūrṇis largely adhere to this focus. Viśeṣāvaśyakabhāṣya is noted as an exception with significant philosophical discussions.
  • The Age of Critical Presentation of Anekāntavāda (c. 4th-6th Century AD): Marked by the critical exposition of Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism) by scholars like Siddhasena Divākara and Samantabhadra. This period also saw the emergence of detailed discussions on the concept of Pañcajñāna (five-fold knowledge) and a critical evaluation of other schools of thought.
  • The Age of Systematization of Jaina Philosophy (c. 7th-10th Century AD): Focused on organizing and systematizing Jaina philosophy. While Tattvārthasūtra by Umāsvāti (c. 3rd AD) is an early work in this direction, the period saw significant contributions like Akalanka's Rājavārttika and Vidyānandi's ślokavārttika, which critically elaborated on Tattvārthasūtra. This era also saw a prominent divergence between Digambara and Svetāmbara sects on issues like "Stri-mukti" (liberation of women) and "Kevali-bhukti" (eating by the omniscient).

• Major Changes in Code of Conduct:

  • Jinakalpa vs. Sthavirakalpa: The initial rigorous code of conduct for monks and nuns saw relaxations. Junior monks (Kṣullakas) began using a cloth and a bowl, and senior monks, while accepting nudity, started using a woolen blanket for warmth and a bowl for alms. This led to the establishment of Jinakalpa (ideal conduct) and Sthavirakalpa (conduct with concessions).
  • Schism (c. 1st-2nd Century AD onwards): The use of blankets and bowls, along with other exceptions, is identified as a primary cause for the schism into Digambara, Svetāmbara, and Yāpaniya sects. This division also stemmed from differences in doctrinal interpretations, with "Nihnavas" (those with doctrinal differences) being mentioned from Mahāvira's time.
  • Caityavāsa (Temple-based Living): The second phase of major changes involved monks living in temples (Caityavāsa). This led to the rise of ceremonial and ritualistic practices, wealth accumulation, and the emergence of administrator clergies like Bhattarakas (Digambara) and Yatis (Svetāmbara). These figures lived luxuriously and managed temple properties.
  • Reform Movements: Revolutions against Caityavāsa were initiated by Kundakunda (Digambara, c. 6th AD) and Haribhadra (Svetāmbara, c. 8th AD), though initially unsuccessful. Later, Jineśvara-sūri (c. 10th AD) led a successful reform in the Svetāmbara tradition, leading to the formation of the Kharataragaccha and subsequent sub-sects like Tapāgaccha and Sthanakavāsi. In the Digambara tradition, the Banarasi Mata Terapantha and Tarana Pantha emerged with reformative outlooks.
  • External Influences: The text attributes the rise of idol worship to the influence of Hindu devotionalism and Tantrism, and the emergence of non-idol-worshipping sects to the impact of Muslim culture.

• Development of Jaina Thought:

  • Main Objective of Early Jainism: To escape the cycle of birth and death by eradicating suffering at its root, which is identified as desire and attachment. Materialism is seen as inadequate for permanent relief.
  • Spirituality (Adhyātma): Defined as realizing higher values of life, with happiness and unhappiness being centered within the soul, not external objects. Attachment and desire are the root causes of suffering.
  • Cause of Bondage and Suffering: Attachment (Raga) and delusion (Moha) obscure the soul's spiritual nature. The "mine-complex" (hṛdayagranthi) is the root of worldly existence. Karma is the binding principle, obscuring the soul's natural infinite qualities.
  • Karma Theory: Activities of mind, speech, and body lead to the influx of karma-particles, which cause bondage in terms of type, quantity, duration, and intensity. There are eight types of karma, with ghāti karma (knowledge-obscuring, perception-obscuring, deluding, obstructive) being destructive and aghati karma (feeling-producing, age-determining, body-determining, status-determining) being non-destructive.
  • Ultimate End (Mokṣa): The ultimate goal is liberation, a state of perfect and purified soul with infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and power. This is achieved by shedding karmic particles.
  • Jaina Sadhana (Practice): Early texts mention Triyāma, Caturyāma, and Pañcayāma (paths of liberation). The three jewels (Samyak Darśana, Samyak Jñāna, Samyak Caritra) form the core, with their interpretations evolving.
  • Theory of Knowledge: The development of Pañcajñāna (Mati, Śruta, Avadhi, Manah-paryaya, Kevala) is traced. Initially five types, it later evolved into a two-fold classification (Pratyaksa and Parokṣa), and then a synthesis involving Sāmvyāvahārika Pratyaksa and Pāramārthika Pratyaksa.
  • Theory of Pramāṇa: Jainism adopted the concept of Pramāṇa from other schools, synthesizing it with its five-fold knowledge. Early Agamas referred to three or four Pramāṇas, while Umāsvāti introduced the five-fold knowledge as Pramāṇa. Akalanka later established Smrti (memory), Pratyabhijña (recognition), and Tarka (induction) as independent Pramāṇas, contributing significantly to Jaina logic.
  • Development of Non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda) and Syādvāda: Anekāntavāda originated from Mahāvira's Vibhajyavāda (conditional assertion) and emphasizes the multi-faceted nature of reality. This led to the development of Nayas (standpoints) and the doctrine of Saptabhangi (seven-fold predication). The Bhagavati Sutra initially mentions three ways of expression, but the systematic seven-fold predication is first logically presented by Siddhasena Divākara.
  • Metaphysics (Astikāya and Saddravya): The doctrine of Pañcāstikāya (five constituents of the universe: Jiva, Dharma, Adharma, Akāśa, Pudgala) is considered an original Jaina theory, likely originating from Pārsva's tradition. The concept of Saddravya (six substances) developed by adding time to Pañcāstikāya. The classification of Jivas into Şadjivanikāya (six-fold living beings), including earth, water, fire, air, vegetation, and mobile beings, is also discussed.
  • Gunasthāna (Stages of Spiritual Development): The doctrine of fourteen Gunasthānas emerged after the Tattvārthasūtra, with detailed discussions appearing in the 5th century AD. These stages chart the soul's spiritual journey from ignorance to omniscience.
  • Three Stages of Spiritual Quest: The text notes the influence of Upanishadic classifications on the Jaina division of the soul into Bahirātmā (extrovert), Antarātmā (introvert), and Paramātmā (transcendental self).
  • Three-fold Path of Liberation: While early texts mention various paths, Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra fixed it as Right Knowledge, Right Faith, and Right Conduct. The interpretations of these components evolved, with Darśana shifting from "seeing" to "faith in categories" and eventually to faith in Tirthankaras and non-violence. Right knowledge came to be understood as discrimination between self and non-self. Right conduct also evolved from mere asceticism to include external and internal aspects, with an emphasis on intention.
  • Concept of Tirthankara and Bhakti Movement: The concept of Tirthankara, a founder and object of worship, developed between the 3rd-1st centuries BC. While resembling Hindu avatars, Tirthankaras are not destroyers of wickedness but propounders of religion achieved through personal effort. The development of the Bhakti movement in Jainism, with idol worship, ceremonial performances, and the adoption of Hindu deities and rituals, started around the 3rd-4th century AD.
  • Development of Arts and Architecture: The practice of making Jaina images dates back to the 3rd-4th century BC, with the earliest dated images from the Mauryan period. The 3rd-4th century AD also saw the development of temple architecture and rituals for idol worship, influenced by Hindu practices. The text lists numerous arts and sciences mentioned in Jaina canons, reflecting a broad engagement with knowledge.

Conclusion:

The author concludes that early Jainism, while rigorous, was also liberal and assimilative, leading to the development of Anekāntavāda. Jaina thinkers synthesized conflicting views from various Indian schools, contributing significantly to Indian philosophy. However, the adoption of external practices, particularly from Hinduism, also led to the introduction of ritualism, caste system elements, and a shift from pure spiritualism to a more ritualistic approach, which, while perhaps necessary for survival, left some "scratches" on Jainism's ideal spiritual image. The text highlights that many core philosophical concepts solidified before the 2nd-3rd century AD, with Tattvārthasūtra providing a systematic framework.