Hindu Tatha Jain Sadhu Parampara Evam Achar

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The book, "Hindu tatha Jain Sadhu Parampara evam Achar," by Devnarayan Sharma, explores the traditions and conduct of ascetics (Sadhus) in both Hindu and Jain philosophies. The author begins by tracing the roots of spiritual seeking in India back to the Vedas, noting that while the Vedic period emphasized worldly enjoyment and ritual, the Upanishads marked a significant shift towards introspection, the concept of the soul (Atman), rebirth, and karma. The Upanishads introduced the idea of liberation (Moksha) as the ultimate goal, viewing worldly life as ultimately unsatisfactory and leading to asceticism.

Sharma highlights that the Upanishads initiated the practice of renunciation and asceticism, emphasizing knowledge as the path to Moksha. This focus on liberation led to a decline in the importance of ritualistic sacrifices and the caste system, while simultaneously fostering a sense of world-weariness and a search for a more profound spiritual path. This yearning for a life of detachment and spiritual pursuit, rather than material enjoyment, is seen as the genesis of the Sadhu tradition.

The text emphasizes that the spirit of renunciation, first evident in the Upanishads, became more pronounced in Buddhism and Jainism. These traditions inspired a greater number of individuals to renounce worldly life, often to prevent falling from spiritual attainment gained through self-knowledge. These ascetics, who wandered freely and practiced austerities, rejected ritualistic practices and worldly pleasures, aiming to cultivate detachment and guide people towards spiritual realization.

Sharma points out that while the ascetic path existed even in Vedic times, it was often intertwined with ritual. However, the Upanishadic emphasis on detachment and the subsequent rise of Jainism and Buddhism significantly challenged the entrenched ritualistic tradition supported by the priestly class. These reformist movements, by opening the path of renunciation to all castes, gained considerable traction and profoundly influenced societal values.

The author asserts that the Shraman (ascetic) tradition has co-existed with the Brahmanical tradition in India since ancient times. Citing the Bhagavad Purana's mention of Rishabhadeva as an incarnation of Vishnu and Buddhist accounts of Siddhartha Gautama, Sharma suggests that the distinction between Brahmanical and Shraman traditions is not always clear-cut, with evidence of Jain and Buddhist presence in ancient Hindu scriptures. He notes that the Vedas contain mantras against those who criticize Vedic practices, implying the existence of opposing viewpoints even then.

Sharma argues that the Shraman tradition was largely "A-Vedic" (outside the Vedic fold), viewing Vedic sacrificial implements as useless. While Brahmins were generally theistic, Shramanas encompassed both theistic and atheistic viewpoints. He speculates that the tradition of yoga and ascetic practices predates the arrival of Aryans in India and was nurtured by the Shraman class. The influence of Shramanas grew significantly with the popularization of the Moksha principle, which elevated the status of ascetics over householders. The tradition of devotional ascetics, who engaged in idol worship, also emerged around 500 BCE, as indicated by historical records.

The book then delves into the concept of "Achar" (conduct or practice), equating it with Dharma itself. Sharma emphasizes that while the Vedas laid the groundwork, Upanishads elaborated on the path to liberation. Jainism and Buddhism, in particular, placed immense importance on Achar, focusing on principles like non-violence (Ahimsa), detachment, self-control, forgiveness, wisdom, and compassion. The Yoga Darshan also incorporates similar virtues through its Yamas and Niyamas. The author cites the Manu Smriti's "Achara paramo dharmaḥ" (Conduct is the highest Dharma) and the Jain principle "Ahimsa paramo dharmaḥ" to underscore the central role of conduct in Indian spiritual traditions.

Sharma explains that the five great vows (Mahavratas) in Jainism – Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy/chastity), and Aparigraha (non-possession) – are not separate entities but rather complementary aspects of Ahimsa, essential for its complete observance. He concludes that the adherence to these vows is crucial for individual, societal, and national well-being, contributing to a peaceful, happy, and progressive society.

The text then discusses the practical implementation of these vows, explaining how Jainism distinguishes between Anu (partial) and Mahat (total) observance, catering to householders and ascetics respectively. This distinction creates a clear demarcation between householder and ascetic conduct, a concept echoed in the Hindu Chaturashrama (four stages of life) system. The author suggests that asceticism represents the culmination of life's spiritual journey.

The book highlights the vastness of literature dedicated to ascetic conduct in India, noting that nearly all religious texts touch upon this subject. It then narrows its focus to the conduct of Hindu and Jain Sadhus, specifically referencing the Manusmriti as representative of Hindu tradition and Mulachar for Jain tradition, albeit from a broad perspective.

Manusmriti and Sadhu Conduct: Sharma details the Manusmriti's description of Sadhu conduct, based on Vedic and Varnashrama traditions. It outlines the stages of Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, and Sanyasa. A Vanaprastha (forest dweller) is advised to renounce worldly affairs upon reaching old age, characterized by physical changes and the birth of grandchildren. They are to reside in forests, practice austerities, and perform Vedic rituals with specific dietary restrictions (abstaining from honey, meat, and cultivated produce, accepting only uncultivated grains and fruits). The text describes rigorous practices for Vanaprasthas, including specific bathing rituals, enduring hardships like five fires during summer, and observing fasts. For those with incurable diseases, the Manusmriti prescribes a final journey towards the North, sustaining themselves on water and air.

The Sanyasin (renouncer) stage, described as the final phase of life, involves complete renunciation of worldly ties, possession of a staff and begging bowl, and living solely on alms. Sanyasins are to be indifferent to worldly possessions, content with a begging bowl (skull), tree shade, and worn clothing. They should possess equanimity, neither desiring life nor fearing death, and act as obedient servants of a higher will. Their conduct involves careful observation of the path, purification of water, truthful speech, and mental restraint. They are expected to tolerate harsh words, show respect to all, and cultivate universal friendship, responding to anger with peace and criticism with praise. They must avoid falsehood in speech related to senses, mind, and intellect, and speak only of Brahman. This stage is characterized by detachment, yogic posture, and a desire for liberation through self-effort. Manusmriti also criticizes seeking alms through omens or prophecies. Sadhus are cautioned against begging at doors where other mendicants are present. Their begging bowl should be seamless, made of natural materials. They should beg only once a day to avoid attachment to sensory pleasures. The ideal time for begging is after the household cooking is finished and most people have eaten. They should accept alms with joy and remain undisturbed by non-receipt, avoiding any sense of possession from the giver.

Sadhus are instructed to meditate on the causes of birth, death, pleasure, and pain, maintaining equanimity towards all beings and adhering to their Dharma. They are to protect even small creatures, walking with caution to avoid harming them. If unintentional harm occurs, Pranayama (breath control) is prescribed as penance. The text also emphasizes the importance of mental purification through Pranayama, control of senses, and meditation to overcome vices like anger. While external practices are mentioned, the Manusmriti stresses that true liberation comes from Samyagdarshan (right perception) or equanimity. Without this inner realization, all external rituals are considered mere show. The Manusmriti also outlines the conduct of various types of ascetics like Bahudaka, Hamsa, Paramahamsa, and Kutichaka, with general principles applicable to all, though some specific points are made for the Kutichaka who lives under his son's care.

Mulachar and Sadhu Conduct: In contrast to Manu, the text states that Acharya Battaker (author of Mulachar) does not prescribe an age limit for becoming a Sadhu or require prior Grihastha-ashrama. For him, anyone with desires extinguished, a mind inclined towards Dharma, and capable of renunciation can become an ascetic. The fundamental qualities of a Sadhu, according to Acharya, are adherence to truth, non-violence, not taking what is not given, celibacy, and control of the three modes of speech, mind, and body, along with detachment from possessions. Sadhus are to be free from vices like delusion, attachment, hatred, fear, and disgust, accepting the state of being naked (digambaratva) as ordained by the Jinas. They are to live a life of complete non-possession, free from attachment to their physical bodies.

Sharma outlines Battaker's views on Sadhu dwellings and practices: Sadhus should seek shelter at sunset, preferably in places outside homes, such as caves or empty structures. Their stay in villages and towns is limited to one night and five days, respectively. They are to experience liberation in solitude, in places like mountain caves, deserted houses, or crematoriums. While wandering, Sadhus must be vigilant to avoid harming any living beings, maintaining a constant state of alertness and compassion. They must acquire knowledge of all living and non-living entities to renounce the harmful and embrace the beneficial. Sadhus are forbidden from cutting or causing the cutting of vegetation, digging, or cultivating the earth, nor should they approve of such actions by others. The carrying of any staff or weapon is strictly prohibited for ascetics. They should remain contemplative, treating all beings equally.

The text explains that Sadhus should perform Parana (breaking the fast) on the sixth, eighth, tenth, or twelfth day, using food obtained through alms, not prepared or consented to by themselves. This act is for the sake of spiritual practice, not taste. Sharma emphasizes that Sadhus should accept food only from another's hand-bowl, if it is pure and free from defects. Battaker stresses that Sadhus should not beg with the expectation of welcome or rejection but should view all households equally, rich or poor. They must accept food without considering its taste or temperature. The sole purpose of sustaining the physical body is for Dharma practice and liberation. Sadhus are to remain content whether they receive alms or not, maintaining a neutral and undisturbed demeanor. They should never beg pitifully and must return empty-handed without breaking their silence. They are also cautioned against accepting stale, discolored, or unpurified food.

The author concludes by emphasizing the importance of knowledge alongside ritual purity for Sadhus. According to Battaker, Sadhus should possess knowledge of scriptures like Acharanga, Sutrakritanga, and Sthananga. They should be capable of understanding and rigorously following the teachings of their gurus, possessing sharp intellect to grasp concepts quickly, and be well-versed in scriptures. Despite this intellectual depth, Sadhus must remain humble, free from anger, gentle, knowledgeable about their own and other traditions, and disciplined. Bodily ornamentation and hygiene practices like washing the face or teeth are forbidden. Even in case of illness, Sadhus should bear it silently without seeking medical treatment. They should not recall or speak of past worldly pleasures, and any language contrary to Dharma or lacking in respect is condemned. Sadhus are to live as if blind and deaf to worldly affairs, never engaging in mundane conversations. Battaker advocates for severe austerities, believing that attachment to the physical body is the primary obstacle to self-realization, and that mortifying the body through tapas aids in achieving self-knowledge.

Finally, Sharma summarizes that both Hindu and Jain ascetics, as exemplified by Manu and Battaker, share striking similarities in their inner and outer conduct, influencing each other. The core principles of ascetic life are virtuous conduct and compassion. While scholars may engage in intellectual debate, ascetics embody this knowledge in their lives, making their conduct the ideal and the foundation of their existence. Therefore, despite differences in sect, the variations in the conduct of ascetics are superficial rather than substantial.