Hindu Aur Jain Vrat Ek Kriya Pratikriyatmaka Lekha Jokha

This research paper, "Hindu aur Jain Vrat: Ek Kriya Pratikriyatmaka Lekha Jokha" by Dr. Anita Bothra, explores the reciprocal relationship and influences between Hindu and Jain fasting and vow traditions.

The paper defines "Hindu tradition" as the lineage of thought stemming from the Vedas through Puranas and devotional sects, with a focus on the devotional and ritualistic aspects that emerged during the Puranic period. It acknowledges the debate surrounding "Hindu" and "Hindutva" but uses "Hindu" to encompass the philosophical current from the Vedas to the epics and Puranas.

The central aim of the research is to present a reasoned account of the interactions and reactions between Hindu and Jain vow traditions, given that both originated and developed in India, leading to constant exchange.

Key Points and Findings:

• Origin and Nature of Vrat (Vows/Fasts):

  • Hindu Tradition: Initially, many Hindu vows were linked to Vedic sacrificial rituals (yajna). Due to various reasons, these evolved into practices of fasting, worship, and vows for material and spiritual benefits.
  • Jain Tradition: In the Agamic period, Jain vows existed as the five Mahavratas for ascetics and the twelve vows for lay followers (Shravakas), along with various austerities (tapas). These vows, focusing on restraint and discipline, were maintained while incorporating fasting and worship practices.

• Etymology and Meaning of 'Vrat':

  • Scholars have differing views on the origin of the word 'vrat'. Dr. Kane suggests it derives from the roots 'vri' (to choose/select) and 'vrit' (to revolve/act), implying a "committed act," "resolve," or "desire."
  • In the Rigveda, 'rita', 'vrata', and 'dharman' are frequently used. 'Rita' means divine order, 'dharman' means religious rite or sacrifice. Over time, 'rita' faded, 'satya' (truth) gained prominence, and 'dharma' became a comprehensive term. 'Vrata' specifically came to mean "religious and sacred vow" and "restrictive behavior observed by humans."
  • While compound words like 'satyavrata', 'priyavrata', and 'dridhavrata' appear in the Rigveda, 'anuvrata' does not. The term 'mahavrata' exists in later Vedic texts and epics but often refers to "great vow," "great penance," or "great ceremony" rather than the specific Jain concept of Mahavratas.

• Evolution of Vratas in Hindu Tradition:

  • From the 2nd-3rd century CE to the 10th century CE, the number of Puranic texts and vows increased significantly. By the 15th-19th centuries, vow-related literature and compendiums proliferated.
  • The shift from Vedic sacrifices to vows was driven by several factors:
    • Complexity and Expense of Yajna: Sacrifices became elaborate, priest-dominated, costly, and difficult for ordinary people. Vows, in altered forms, replaced them.
    • Critique of Sacrifice: Jain and Buddhist traditions strongly opposed the sacrificial system, particularly animal sacrifice. This critique influenced a broader shift in religious practices.
    • Internal Reform: Even within the Vedic tradition, some thinkers questioned the violence in sacrifices and emphasized non-violence and devotional practices, as seen in figures like Narada.
    • Inclusivity: Sacrifices excluded women and Shudras from religious participation. Vows, however, were open to all castes and genders, particularly household women, addressing a societal need for inclusive religious expression.
    • Influence of Folk Practices: Popular customs, rituals, and beliefs (lokaveda) described in the Atharvaveda likely influenced the development of Puranic vows.

• Evolution of Vratas in Jain Tradition:

  • Agamic Period: Vows were central to the conduct of ascetics (Mahavratas) and lay followers (Anuvratas) and were considered lifelong commitments. The primary purpose of these vows and austerities was karmic purification (nirjara), not worldly gain.
  • Second Stage (6th-10th Century CE): Ascetic practices (tapas) were elaborated, and minor benefits began to be associated with them. Texts like "Varangacharita" discuss "sattapa" (fasts) and vows, often with the mention of desired results. However, no fundamentally new vows were created.
  • Third Stage (11th Century CE onwards): New vows began to emerge, often termed 'vrata' instead of 'tapa'. Vow narratives ("vrata-katha") appeared, detailing resolves, rituals, and worldly/otherworldly fruits. Examples include "Gyanpanchami Katha" and "Sugandhadashami Katha." Some texts like "Vasunandi Shravakachar" showed a deviation by prioritizing charity and rituals over austerities, and included vows that were less aligned with core Jain principles. The influence of Puranic Hindu vows became evident.
  • Fourth Stage (15th Century CE onwards): A significant influx of vow-related literature occurred with collections of "vrata-kathas." These narratives focused on worldly prosperity and heavenly attainment, often detached from the ultimate goal of liberation.
  • Reasons for Changes in Jain Vows:
    • Social Interaction: The need for Jain society to interact with the majority Hindu society led to the adoption of certain practices.
    • Attraction of Rituals: The ritualistic and festive nature of Hindu Puranic vows attracted the lay Jain community, as Jain vows were initially more abstract and focused on inward restraint.
    • Practical Needs: Jain acharyas recognized the need for vows that could bring worldly benefits like wealth, long life, and prosperity to householders, leading to the creation of new, more accessible vows.
    • Inclusivity: The emphasis shifted towards attracting common people to Dharma by incorporating elements that catered to their desires, even if it meant a departure from the strict "nidana-tapa" (vows with selfish intent) condemnation in the Agamas.
    • Influence of Folk Traditions: Local customs and family traditions that were prevalent among Jains also evolved into vow forms.

• Similarities and Differences:

  • Similarities: Both traditions feature fasting, abstinence (from certain foods, activities), and vows taken for specific periods. The practice of distributing alms during "udhyapan" (concluding rituals) is present in both, though Hindus donate to Brahmins and Jains to the Sangha. Both traditions see vows predominantly observed by women, with a peak in observance during the Chaturmas period. Both developed vow-narrative literature.
  • Differences:
    • Core Philosophy: Jain vows are deeply rooted in non-violence, truthfulness, and other core ethical principles, aiming for spiritual liberation. Hindu vows, while also having spiritual aims, often focus on worldly benefits, prosperity, and even specific outcomes like obtaining children or ensuring a husband's longevity.
    • Nature of Vows: Jain Mahavratas and Anuvratas are lifelong commitments, whereas many Hindu vows are for fixed periods.
    • Resolves and Rituals: Hindu vows are often undertaken with explicit verbal resolves. Jain vows, historically, did not emphasize such resolves, though later developments show some influence. Hindu traditions often involve elaborate rituals, idol worship of various deities, and specific offerings (naivedya), which are less prevalent or absent in core Jain practices.
    • Role of Priests: Hindu vows sometimes require the services of priests and involve rituals like homa. Jain vows are generally performed by individuals themselves, under the guidance of their acharyas.
    • Purification: Hindu traditions often emphasize external purification through bathing before rituals, while Jainism prioritizes internal purity of mind and intentions.

• Conclusion:

  • Hindu and Jain vow traditions have distinct origins. Jainism firmly integrated vows like non-violence and truthfulness into the lifelong conduct of ascetics and laypeople as the foundation for spiritual progress.
  • Hinduism, with its emphasis on inclusive, ritualistic, and visually appealing practices (offerings, idol worship, processions), developed a wide array of vows in its Puranic phase, partly in response to the intellectual challenges posed by Jainism and Buddhism.
  • Jain acharyas, recognizing the need to make Dharma more accessible and engaging, also introduced more ritualistic and outcome-oriented vows from the 11th to the 15th centuries. This led to a greater emphasis on temple building, idol worship, and rituals within both Shvetambara and Digambara traditions.
  • The emergence of the Sthanakvasi sect in Gujarat in the 16th century, and the subsequent tilt towards fundamental principles, can be seen as a reaction against these elaborate rituals.
  • The paper concludes that the interaction and reciprocal influence between Hindu and Jain religious practices, particularly concerning vows, has been a continuous process throughout Indian history.