Heart Of Jainism

This comprehensive summary of Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson's "The Heart of Jainism" (1915) is based on the provided text, covering its key themes, historical overview, philosophical concepts, practices, and the author's perspective.

Overall Scope and Author's Approach:

"The Heart of Jainism" by Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson aims to provide a detailed and sympathetic overview of Jainism, with a particular focus on its modern practices and beliefs, while also exploring its historical origins and philosophical underpinnings. The author, drawing on her extensive fieldwork in Gujarat and interactions with various Jaina communities, strives to present the Jaina point of view, reflecting their current opinions and practices. Her approach is characterized by meticulous research, drawing from both Jaina scriptures and scholarly works, and a desire to bridge the gap between Western and Indian understanding of this religion. The book is part of a series aiming to explore the "Religious Quest of India" in a scholarly and sympathetic spirit, with an underlying, explicitly stated Christian perspective aiming for comparative understanding and potential eventual synthesis.

Key Themes and Content:

I. Introduction and Historical Context:

• Indian Religious Ideals: The book begins by highlighting the Indian ideal of escaping the cycle of rebirth, often associated with a desire for cessation and a "deathlike trance" rather than continuous life and development. Asceticism, born of fear of future rebirths and present ills, is presented as a central path to this goal.
• Revolt Against Brahmanism: Jainism, along with Buddhism, is presented as a significant revolt against the Brahmanical caste system and its exclusiveness. The Kṣatriya (warrior) class, feeling barred from the mendicant stage, is identified as a primary source of these reform movements.
• The Sixth Century B.C. Context: The book places the rise of Mahāvīra and Buddha within a broader "sixth century before Christ" context of religious awakening and reform across various cultures.
• Survival of Jainism: A key point of interest is Jainism's survival in India when many other ancient orders disappeared. The author attributes this, in part, to the integral role given to lay adherents from the outset, distinguishing it from Buddhism. The westward migration of Jainism, particularly towards Western India's mercantile communities, is also noted.
• Mahāvīra's Role: Mahāvīra is presented as a reformer who built upon an existing Order (Pārśvanātha's) and further developed Jainism's principles. The book emphasizes Jainism's protest against luxury and wealth, and its evolution towards an exaggerated principle of ahiṁsā (non-injury).
• Atheistic Tendencies: Jainism is characterized as atheistic in its denial of a creator God, initially teaching that no power is higher than man, though this principle was later practically abandoned. Instead of God-worship, it practices "man-worship" by venerating Arhats and Finas.
• Scholarly Advancements: The author acknowledges the significant contributions of European scholars like Bühler, Jacobi, and Hoernle in establishing Jainism as an ancient and distinct monastic organization, predating Buddhism.
• Modern Jainism as Terra Incognita: A primary motivation for the book is to illuminate "modern Jainism, its present-day practices and its present-day teachings," which were largely unknown to Western scholarship at the time.
• Linguistic Approach: Stevenson notes the use of Magadhi and Sanskrit technical terms, and her intention to reproduce the actual words used by informants, preserving the character of "field-study."

II. Historical Summary:

• Origins and Mahāvīra: The book traces Jainism's origin to the sixth century B.C. with Mahāvīra, whose life and teachings are detailed. The tradition places his birth in 599 B.C. and death in 527 B.C., though acknowledging scholarly debate on these dates.
• Pārśvanātha: The existence of an earlier ascetic, Pārśvanātha, and his Order is discussed, suggesting Mahāvīra may have joined and reformed it.
• Famine and Migration: A great famine around 310 B.C. led to a migration under Bhadrabāhu to Mysore, contributing to the spread of Jainism in the South.
• Councils of Pāṭaliputra and Vallabhi: These councils are presented as crucial for codifying scriptures, addressing issues like nudity and idolatry, and leading to the eventual split between the Svetāmbara and Digambara sects.
• Canon of Scriptures: A detailed list of the Jaina scriptures (Angas, Upangas, Chedagranthas, Mulagranthas, Payannas) is provided, highlighting the loss of the twelfth Anga (Drishtivāda) and the differing canons of the Svetāmbara and Sthānakavāsi sects. The use of Ardha-Māgadhi, the vernacular of the common people, is noted with pride.
• Zenith and Decline: Jainism reached its zenith between the Council of Vallabhi and the 13th century, enjoying royal patronage. However, decline followed due to Mohammedan and Śaiva persecution.
• Rise of Sthānakavāsī: The emergence of non-idolatrous sects like the Lonka and Sthānakavāsi in the 15th-17th centuries is linked to a "Reformation" similar to Luther's in Europe.
• Modern Influence: Despite temporal power loss, Jainism wields significant influence through its wealth and its position among money-lenders and bankers. The high literacy and low criminal record of Jaina are noted.

III. The Life of Mahāvīra:

• Birth and Childhood Legends: Detailed accounts of Mahāvīra's birth and the fourteen auspicious dreams of his mother, Triśalā, are given, along with differing interpretations by the Svetāmbara and Digambara sects. His early name Vardhamāna and his symbol (the lion) are mentioned. Legends of his childhood prowess, including subduing a mad elephant and a god, are recounted.
• Marriage and Renunciation: The Svetāmbara tradition of Mahāvīra's marriage to Yaśodā and having a daughter is contrasted with the Digambara denial of marriage. His renunciation of the world around age thirty is described, with differing accounts of his parents' consent.
• Initiation: The initiation ceremony is detailed, including the act of tearing out hair by the roots and the presentation of a robe by Indra. Mahāvīra's progression through the five degrees of knowledge (jñāna) is explained.
• Asceticism and Nudity: His abandonment of clothes after thirteen months (for Svetāmbara) or at initiation (for Digambara) is discussed, along with the symbolic meaning attributed to nudity by Mr. Benarsi Dass (forgetting nakedness to overcome the knowledge of good and evil).
• Wandering and Enlightenment: His twelve years of wandering, practice of austerities, and eventual attainment of Omniscience (Kevala jñāna) under a Śāla tree are described, leading to his titles Fina and Arhat.
• Preaching and Disciples: Mahāvīra's first sermon on the five great vows, his emphasis on asceticism (contrasting with Buddha's focus on desire), and his early disciples like Gautama Indrabhūti are discussed. The organization of his followers into four orders (Tīrtha): monks (muni), nuns (sādhvi), laymen (śrāvaka), and laywomen (śrāvikā), is highlighted as a key to Jainism's survival.
• Death: Mahāvīra's death at Pāpā (Pāvāpurī) in his seventy-second year is described, emphasizing his complete exhaustion of karma and attainment of Nirvāṇa. The festival of Divālī is linked to his passing.
• Previous Incarnations: The legends of Mahāvīra's previous births, particularly as Mariċi, are recounted to illustrate the Jaina view of karma.

IV. Mahāvīra's Predecessors and Disciples:

• Pārśvanātha: Presented as potentially the actual founder of Jainism, Pārśvanātha's life, birth in 817 B.C., and his four vows (non-killing, truth, non-stealing, non-possession) are detailed. Mahāvīra's addition of chastity and modification of non-possession are noted.
• Earlier Tirthankaras: The twenty-two earlier Tirthankaras are listed with brief biographical details, their symbols, time intervals, and birthplaces, illustrating the Jaina belief in the antiquity of their faith. The influence of Hindu deities and concepts (like Indra, Lakṣmī, Svastika) in these legends is evident.
• Disciples: The conversion and significance of Mahāvīra's chief disciples, Gautama Indrabhūti (whose intense attachment to Mahāvīra delayed his omniscience) and Sudharma (credited with compiling the scriptures), are discussed. The story of the apostate Gośāla, highlighting the need for stringent monastic rules and the dangers of fatalism, is also detailed.

V. History of the Jaina Community:

• The Four Tīrtha: The organization of Mahāvīra's followers into monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen is presented as crucial to Jainism's survival.
• Key Leaders: The succession of spiritual leaders from Jambū Svāmī (the last to attain Kevala jñāna) through Prabhāva, Sayambhava, Bhadrabāhu, Sthūlabhadra, and others up to Hemācārya is traced.
• The Great Schism: The historical division into Svetāmbara (white-clad) and Digambara (space-clad) sects is explained, linked to differences in monastic practice (especially regarding clothing) and scripture, possibly originating from earlier divisions within the Order.
• Sanskritization and Loss of Scriptures: The trend towards Sanskritization of scriptures and the loss of certain early texts are noted.
• Sthānakavāsī and Non-idolatrous Sects: The rise of these reform movements against idolatry is discussed, linking their dates to European Reformation movements.
• Influence of Hinduism and Islam: The book highlights the ongoing influence of Hinduism and the impact of Mohammedan conquests on Jaina architecture and religious practices.

VI. Jaina Philosophy:

• Pudgala and Karma: The core of Jaina philosophy is presented as the intricate system of karma and its interaction with the soul (jīva). The concept of pudgala (matter) as the medium through which karma binds the soul is explored.
• The Nine Categories (Nava Tattva): This forms the backbone of Jaina ontology, detailing the nature of the soul (jīva), inanimate reality (ajīva), merit (puṇya), sin (pāpa), the inflow of karma (āśrava), the impediment of karma (saṁvara), bondage to karma (bandha), the destruction of karma (nirjarā), and liberation (mokṣa). Each category is explained with numerous subdivisions and illustrative legends.
• Ahiṁsā and Austerity: The paramount importance of ahiṁsā and the value of both inner and outer austerities (tapa) as means to destroy karma are emphasized.
• Saptabhaṁgī Naya: This doctrine of "sevenfold prediction" or "manifold aspects" is highlighted as a unique Jaina philosophical contribution, promoting a nuanced and non-absolute view of reality, akin to Hegel's idea of being and non-being.
• Jiva's Classification: The soul (jīva) is extensively classified based on senses, states of existence (hell, animal, human, god), and the six Leśyā (colors of the soul reflecting mental states), demonstrating a detailed animistic and hylozoistic worldview.
• Difference from Other Indian Philosophies: The Jaina position is contrasted with Sānkhya, Vedānta, and Buddhism on issues like the nature of the soul, karma, and mokṣa.

VII. Karma and the Path to Liberation:

• Karma as Central: The entire system is described as revolving around karma. The four sources of karma (attachment, passions, yoga, false belief) and the nine ways of arresting it are detailed.
• The Eight Kinds of Karma: A detailed breakdown of the eight main types of karma (jñānāvaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, vedanīya, mohanīya, āyu, nāma, gotra, antarāya) is provided, along with their subdivisions and how they affect one's life and spiritual progress.
• Ghātin and Aghātin Karma: The classification of karma into the more destructive (ghātin) and less destructive (aghātin) types is explained.
• Three Tenses of Karma: Karma is understood in terms of past (sattā), present (bandha), and future (udaya).
• The Fourteen Steps (Guṇasthānaka): This ladder of spiritual progress outlines the soul's journey from complete ignorance (mithyātva) through stages of partial understanding, conduct, and meditation, ultimately leading to liberation (mokṣa). The progression from controlling passions to the destruction of all karma is meticulously detailed.

VIII. Jainism in Relation to Christianity:

• "The Empty Heart of Jainism": This chapter, and indeed the entire book, implicitly critiques Jainism from a Christian perspective. While acknowledging Jainism's ethical rigor, emphasis on self-discipline, and avoidance of cruelty, Stevenson highlights what she perceives as its limitations:
  • Lack of Personal God: The absence of a Creator God, Father, or Friend leaves a void for personal devotion (bhakti).
  • No Forgiveness: The Jaina concept of karma as an automatic, impersonal force means there is no divine forgiveness for past failures; suffering is seen as the direct consequence of one's own actions, leading to a lack of sympathy for others' suffering.
  • No Prayer: Without a personal God, the concept of prayer is absent or considered sinful.
  • No True Brotherhood: The denial of a divine Fatherhood prevents a true brotherhood of man, exacerbated by the strong influence of caste.
  • Stultification vs. Development: Christian asceticism is presented as developing personality and character, while Jaina asceticism is seen as self-stultification and the elimination of personality.
  • Emphasis on Death vs. Life: Jainism's goal of escaping suffering through cessation is contrasted with Christianity's "life more abundantly" through Christ.
  • Ahimsā's Absurdity: While admiring the principle of non-killing, Stevenson points out its logical extreme leading to impracticality and even suicide, which is seen as a contradiction.
  • Christ as the Fulfilment: Christ is presented as the answer to Jainism's "empty heart," offering personal friendship, grace, forgiveness, and a path of "conquest through pain" and "mystic joy in sorrow." The Jaina capacity for self-discipline and idealism is seen as a potential contribution to Christianity.

IX. Worship and Customs:

• Temple Worship: Descriptions of Digambara and Svetāmbara temple worship are provided, noting differences in idol depictions (nude vs. clothed, downcast vs. staring eyes) and the performance of rituals.
• Private Worship: The Sthānakavāsi emphasis on private devotions, meditation (sāmāyika), and scripture reading is detailed.
• Holy Days and Festivals: Key Jaina festivals like Pajjusaņa, Samvatsarī, Divālī, and various fasts are explained, alongside an acknowledgement of Hindu festivals adopted or adapted by Jaina.
• Superstitions: The author notes the prevalence of Hindu superstitions among Jaina women, including beliefs in the evil eye, evil spirits, ancestor worship, and appeasing deities for health and fertility, which are often frowned upon by reformers.
• Ceremonies: Various life-cycle ceremonies like naming, feeding, betrothal, wedding, and funeral rites are described, highlighting the elaborate rituals and the significant role of family members, especially aunts and uncles.

X. Jaina Architecture and Literature:

• Architectural Evolution: The shift from early wooden structures to stone temples is discussed, noting the influence of Buddhism and later Islam on Jaina architectural styles, particularly the adoption of Mughal elements. The author laments the loss of early wooden works and the confusion with Buddhist monuments.
• Key Architectural Features: The mandapa, sabhā mandapa, gabhāro, surrounding courtyards with cells, and the pyramidal śikhara are described. The exquisite marble carving of the golden age is praised.
• Southern Indian Architecture: A distinct style in South India, featuring basti, betta, and the colossal images of Gomatesvara, is noted, with intriguing parallels to Irish art.
• Literary Traditions: The development of Jaina literature from Ardha-Magadhi to Jaina-Mahārāṣṭrī and Sanskrit is traced, with special mention of grammar, lexicography, and moral tales. The significant contributions of Tamil and Kanarese Jaina poets, culminating in Hemācārya, are highlighted.

XI. The Empty Heart of Jainism (Conclusion):

• Critique of Asceticism: The book concludes with a strong critique of Jainism's ascetic ideal as one of personality negation and self-stultification, contrasting it sharply with the Christian ideal of personal development through friendship with Christ and the transforming power of love.
• Jainism's "Empty Heart": The author reiterates the perceived lack of a personal God, forgiveness, hope, and true brotherhood, attributing these deficiencies to the impersonal nature of karma and the strong influence of caste.
• Christianity's Offer: Christianity is presented as offering a personal relationship with God, grace, forgiveness, hope, and a concept of love that enriches, rather than negates, personality, thus fulfilling what Jainism's "empty heart" lacks.

In essence, "The Heart of Jainism" offers a scholarly yet religiously framed exploration of Jainism, providing a detailed account of its history, doctrines, and practices, while consistently contrasting it with Christian ideals and ultimately presenting Christianity as the ultimate fulfillment of humanity's religious aspirations.