Glimpses Of Jainism Through Arachaelogy In Uttar Pradesh

Here is a comprehensive summary of the provided text, "Glimpses of Jainism through Archaeology in Uttar Pradesh" by M. L. Nigam:

This book explores the historical presence and influence of Jainism in Uttar Pradesh, India, through archaeological evidence. The author, M. L. Nigam, traces the development of Jainism in the region, highlighting key periods and locations.

Early History and Pārśvanātha:

• The text begins by establishing the deep historical roots of Jainism in Uttar Pradesh, noting that Pārśvanātha, the 23rd Tirthankara and an immediate predecessor of Mahāvīra, was born in Banaras (modern Varanasi) around the 8th century BCE.
• Pārśvanātha, a historical figure, renounced his princely life and established four vows: non-injury (Ahimsa), non-lying (Satya), non-stealing (Asteya), and non-possession (Aparigraha). Mahāvīra later added the fifth vow of non-adultery (Brahmacarya).

Mathura as a Jain Center:

• Mathura and its surrounding areas are identified as significant centers of Jainism, particularly in the early centuries of the Christian era and even earlier.
• Archaeological discoveries, including architectural and sculptural remains, are corroborated by epigraphic evidence, attesting to Jainism's popularity and widespread veneration.
• Mathura was a seat of religious learning and attracted a diverse population, including rulers, commoners, nomads, and foreigners.
• The text mentions King Khāravela of Orissa's visit to Mathura, where he made charitable endowments to both Brahmins and Ārhatas, indicating Jainism's prominent status in the late 1st century BCE.
• Early Yaksa and Naga figures from Mathura, initially associated with Brahmanical creeds, likely formed a nucleus that attracted intellectual and royal patronage to Jainism.
• An inscription from the Kankali mound in Mathura, dated to 72 AD (during the reign of Mahākṣatrapa Sodasa), demonstrates the established practice of offering sacred stone slabs (Āyāgapaṭas) to honor Arhats.

Influence of Different Dynasties:

• The Śakas, a nomadic tribe from Central Asia, subjugated Mathura during the early Christian era, but Jainism continued to thrive.
• The Kuṣāṇa period, following the Śakas, provided an unprecedented impetus to Jaina art. Many Tirthankara images made of spotted red sandstone from this era are preserved in museums.
• The Gupta empire, primarily Vaishnavite, led to a setback in the growth of Jaina art and culture in Uttar Pradesh. However, patrons from the business community continued to support Jaina art, resulting in some excellent pieces from this period.
• A revival of Jainism occurred in the post-Gupta period, notably during the rule of the Chandelas, who provided zealous support to the religion.

Architectural Evidence:

• The earliest Jaina architectural remains are found around Mathura, including fragments of Toranas (gateways), pillars, and railings, believed to belong to an ancient Jaina stupa predating the Christian era.
• An inscription from 157 AD on an image identified as Munisuvrata mentions a stupa referred to as a "work of gods," suggesting its great antiquity. V. A. Smith estimates its initial construction could date back to 600 BCE.
• Later Jaina architecture in Uttar Pradesh includes monastic establishments and temples from the early medieval period.
• Notable sites with Jaina architectural remains include Deogarh, Dudhai, and Madanpur in the Jhansi district.
  • The main shrine at Deogarh features an open pillared hall with numerous images of Tirthankaras and inscriptions, including one from King Bhoja Deva.
  • Jaina temples at Dudhai and Bari Dudhai, though in ruins, indicate magnificent architectural achievements.
  • Madanpur contains Jaina structures from the Chandela period, with an inscription dated 1149 AD.
• At Marpha in the Banda district, remains of a large monastic establishment (Mūlasanghavihāra) from the 14th century AD are found.

Sculptural Evidence:

• Numerous excellent images of Jaina Tirthankaras and subsidiary deities have been discovered across Uttar Pradesh, dating from the 1st century AD to the present.
• This wealth of material in both quality and quantity underscores Jainism's enduring respect in the region.
• Evolution of Jaina Statuary:
  • The Hathigumpha inscription of King Khāravela (late 1st century BCE) mentions the retrieval of a statue of a Jaina Tirthankara.
  • Āyāgapaṭas (sacred stone slabs) from Mathura represent early symbolic worship, featuring auspicious marks like the svastika, fish, and tri-ratna. Initially, they displayed a replica of the Jaina stupa; later versions included a central image of a meditating Jina.
  • The Kuṣāṇa Age saw the creation of the earliest anthropomorphic images of Tirthankaras, found in Mathura and Kausambi. These images, in standing (Kāyotsarga Mudrā) and seated meditation postures, adhere to prescribed auspicious marks (Uṣṇiṣa, Urṇā, Śrīvatsa, etc.). Early Kuṣāṇa art is characterized by a primitive, flattish look with simple ornamentation.
  • The Gupta Age marked a significant artistic advancement, with balanced proportions, controlled modeling, serene faces, and refined details. Halfo pen eyes signify deep contemplation. Pedestals evolved to include lion thrones (Simhasana) or lotus seats. Iconography became more complex, incorporating Hindu deities like Vishnu, Shiva, Kubera, and goddesses as subsidiary figures.
  • The Medieval Period witnessed a revival of Jainism, particularly in Bundelkhand. While aesthetic excellence sometimes declined, iconography became more advanced, with a greater emphasis on ornamentation and multiplication of forms. Sculptures from Mahoba, made of black basalt, feature elaborate pedestals, donors, attendant deities (Yaksa, Yaksi, Chauri-bearers), Gandharvas, Nagas, and elephants offering garlands. Common forms include the Sarvatobhadra-pratima (four-faced image).
• Miniature Paintings: With the decline of plastic art, Jain patrons shifted their patronage to pictorial art, with illustrated manuscripts becoming a new medium. An illustrated Jaina manuscript from Jaunpur is cited as evidence of healthy Jaina pictorial art traditions in medieval Uttar Pradesh.

In summary, M. L. Nigam's "Glimpses of Jainism through Archaeology in Uttar Pradesh" provides a detailed archaeological and epigraphic account of Jainism's deep-rooted history and artistic evolution in Uttar Pradesh, highlighting its significant presence from ancient times through the medieval period.