Facets Of Jaina Religiousness In Comparative Light

This document is the published version of three lectures delivered by Professor L.M. Joshi at the L.D. Institute of Indology in February 1981. Titled "Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light," the book offers an in-depth exploration of key aspects of Jain religious thought, placing them in dialogue with Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions.

The book is structured into three main parts:

Part I: Themes of Soteriological Reflection in Jainism—I

This section, primarily focused on the first lecture, introduces the concept of anuprekṣā, which Professor Joshi translates as "soteriological reflection." He highlights Jainism as a predominantly soteriological system, rooted in an ancient ascetic tradition shared with Buddhism. The core of this section is the detailed examination of the twelve anuprekṣās, practices of deep contemplation aimed at spiritual liberation.

• Preliminary Remarks: Joshi establishes the significance of the śramaṇa tradition and the central role of renunciation (tyāga) and emancipation (mokṣa) in Indian thought, tracing their origins to pre-Vedic ascetic movements. He emphasizes the comparative relevance of Jaina and Buddhist thought due to their shared emphasis on asceticism, despite metaphysical differences.
• The Series of Twelve Themes: The author meticulously outlines the variations in the order and nomenclature of the twelve anuprekṣās across different Jaina texts like the Tattvārthasūtra, Yogaśāstra, Praśamaratiprakaraṇa, Kārttikeyānuprekṣā, and others. He notes that while the order might differ, the underlying themes are crucial for spiritual progress.
• Meaning of Anuprekṣā: Joshi delves into the etymology and function of anuprekṣā, explaining it as a form of scriptural study (svādhyāya) and, more importantly, as a technique for arresting defiling tendencies (samvara). He connects it to meditation and mental cultivation, drawing parallels with Buddhist concepts like bhāvanā, smṛti (mindfulness), and anussati (recollection). He refutes the characterization of anuprekṣās as "pessimistic reflections," asserting they are "pure cultivations" leading to happiness and liberation.
• Some Related Terms and Concepts: This subsection expands on the comparative aspect, discussing the Buddhist concepts of bhāvanā (mental cultivation), smṛti (mindfulness), and anusmṛti (recollection), drawing parallels with Jaina anuprekṣās. He highlights the Buddhist emphasis on mindfulness and meditation for overcoming defilements (āsavas).
• The Purpose of Anuprekṣās: The author summarizes the purpose of the twelve anuprekṣās, stating they promote renunciation (vairāgya), increase the desire for liberation (mokṣa), strengthen the technique of arresting karma (samvara), aid in righteous meditation (dharmya-dhyāna), and ultimately lead to the release of the self. They are presented as essential steps on the path to ultimate release.

Part II: Themes of Soteriological Reflection in Jainism—II

This section, covering the second lecture, systematically analyzes each of the twelve anuprekṣās, providing Jaina textual references and drawing parallels from Buddhist literature.

1. Anityānuprekṣā (Impermanence): Reflection on the transitory nature of all phenomena, similar to Buddhist concepts of impermanence and flux.
2. Aśaraṇānuprekṣā (Shelterlessness): Contemplation on the lack of ultimate refuge in the phenomenal world, especially in the face of death, drawing parallels with Buddhist ideas of refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha.
3. Saṃsārānuprekṣā (The Cycle of Existence): Reflection on the miserable and ever-changing nature of the cycle of rebirth, known as saṃsāra or bhava, highlighting its connection to karma and its beginningless nature, with strong parallels in Buddhist teachings.
4. Ekatvānuprekṣā (Loneliness): Contemplation on the ultimate solitude of the individual soul, emphasizing personal responsibility, with parallels in Buddhist teachings on self-reliance.
5. Anyatvānuprekṣā (Otherness): Reflection on the fundamental distinction between the soul and the body, and the separateness of the self from worldly possessions and relationships.
6. Aśucitvānuprekṣā (Impurity): Meditation on the inherent impurity of the physical body, detailed through descriptions of its composition and excretions, mirroring similar sentiments in Buddhist texts.
7. Āśravānuprekṣā (Influx of Karma): Reflection on the defiling influx of karmic matter into the soul through activities of body, speech, and mind, noting the difference in meaning of āsrava between Jainism and Buddhism.
8. Saṃvarānuprekṣā (Restraint): Contemplation on the practice of samvara, the cessation of defiling influx, highlighting its ethical core in Jainism and its parallel emphasis in Buddhism.
9. Nirjarānuprekṣā (Eradication of Karma): Reflection on the process of detaching and eradicating accumulated karma through austerities and penances, a concept peculiar to Jainism but with some functional parallels in Buddhist samyakprahāṇa (right efforts).
10. Lokānuprekṣā (The Universe): Meditation on the nature and structure of the universe, emphasizing its atheistic origin in Jainism and its role in cultivating detachment, with parallels in Buddhist cosmological views.
11. Bodhidurlabhānuprekṣā (Rarity of Enlightenment): Reflection on the extreme difficulty of attaining human birth and, subsequently, enlightenment, using the famous tortoise and yoke simile, a common theme in both traditions.
12. Dharmasvākhyātatvānuprekṣā (Well-expounded Dharma): Contemplation on the efficacy and glory of the Dharma as taught by the Jinas, emphasizing virtues like ahimsā (non-violence), truthfulness, and compassion, with extensive parallels to the Buddhist concept of Dharma.

Part III: Jaina Conception of the Holy Pentad

This final section, based on the third lecture, shifts focus to the devotional aspect of Jainism, centering on the "holy pentad" (pañcaparameṣṭhin) and its central expression in the pañca-namaskāra-mantra.

• Introduction: Jaina Faith: Joshi begins by discussing the nature of Jaina faith (śraddhā), emphasizing its atheistic foundation and its focus on faith in the purification of the self. He contrasts this with theistic religions and highlights the importance of the tirtha (path) and tirthankara (ford-makers).
• The Formula of Five-fold Obeisance: The author meticulously examines the pañca-namaskāra-mantra ("Obeisance to the Arhats, Obeisance to the Siddhas, Obeisance to the Ācāryas, Obeisance to the Upādhyāyas, Obeisance to all the Sadhus"). He discusses its textual history, its presence in various Jaina scriptures, and its significance as a sacred formula, prayer, and meditation aid. He also notes the close association with the catuh-sarana (four-fold refuge) and draws comparisons with the Buddhist tri-sarana (three-fold refuge).
• The Arhats: This subsection defines arhats as worthy beings, conquerors (jina), and omniscient teachers who have destroyed the four types of karmas that obscure knowledge and perception. He contrasts the Jaina conception of arhat with the Buddhist arhat, suggesting the Jaina tirthankara is a more encompassing figure.
• The Siddhas: The siddhas are described as pure souls in a state of liberation (mokṣa), devoid of form and karma. Their existence is eternal, blissful, and characterized by infinite knowledge, vision, energy, and bliss. The text notes the infinite number of siddhas and their abode at the top of the universe.
• The Ācāryas: Ācāryas are identified as spiritual preceptors and teachers who uphold and propagate the Jaina path through their own conduct and instruction. They are characterized by their knowledge of scriptures, observance of vows, and ethical conduct.
• The Upādhyāyas: Upādhyāyas are religious instructors who specialize in teaching scriptural doctrines, possessing a deep understanding of the texts and the ability to dispel doubts.
• The Sadhus: Sādhus are ordained monks who have renounced worldly life and possessions, dedicated to spiritual perfection. They are characterized by their asceticism, virtue, and adherence to the pañca-mahāvratas (five great vows) and trigupti (threefold restraint).
• Comparative Notes: This concluding part of the third lecture draws significant parallels and contrasts between the Jaina concepts of ācārya, upādhyāya, sādhu, and guru with those found in Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions. It highlights the ascetic orientation of the Jaina and Buddhist sādhus (monks) versus the more householder-based nature of some Brahmanical preceptors. The text also touches upon the veneration of gurus in various other Indian religious traditions like Tantric Buddhism, Nātha, Santamata, Sikhism, and Hinduism, noting the diverse interpretations and roles of these spiritual guides.

In essence, "Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light" provides a scholarly yet accessible overview of core Jaina doctrines, illuminating their philosophical underpinnings, soteriological aims, and devotional practices, all while engaging in a rich comparative analysis with other major Indian religious traditions.