Early History Of Orissa - Book Summary

This is a comprehensive summary of Dr. Amarchand Mittal's "An Early History of Orissa," focusing on the period from the earliest times up to the first century BC. The book aims to provide a detailed and linked account of Orissa's early history, filling a perceived gap in existing scholarship.

Core Focus and Scope:

Period Covered: From the prehistoric era up to the reign of King Khāravela in the closing years of the 1st century BC.
Geographical Definition of Orissa: The region between the Suvarnarekhā River in the north, the Godāvari River in the south, the hilly tracts of the region between modern Orissa and Madhya Pradesh in the west, and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Key Objective: To reconstruct the early history of Orissa by synthesizing historical truths from legends and fables, incorporating later discoveries in history and archaeology, and providing an up-to-date account.

Structure of the Book:

The book is divided into three main parts (Books), further subdivided into fourteen chapters.

Book I: Physical Features, Pre-historical and Traditional History
- Chapter 1: Physical Features:
  - Geographical Factor: Discusses how geography shaped India and Orissa, highlighting Orissa's strategic position as a gateway between North and South India and its role in maritime trade. It also notes the favorable climate and fertile river valleys.
  - Region: Orissa is defined as a natural and strategic unit with a distinct personality due to its climate, soil, geology, people, and historical traditions.
  - Topography: Describes the three distinct geographical divisions of ancient Kalinga: the alluvial plain, the hilly tracts between the Mahanadi and Godavari, and the coastal plain to the south of Berhampur-Ganjam.
  - Rivers: Details the major rivers of Orissa like the Mahanadi, Brahmani, Vaitarni, and Suvarnarekha, explaining their impact on the deltaic region.
  - Lakes: Focuses on the Chilka Lake, describing its formation, geography, and ecological features. It also briefly mentions the Sar Lake.
  - Peoples: Discusses the various tribal groups inhabiting Orissa, including the Khonds and Savaras, and their historical mentions in literature. It also touches upon the Aryan influence and the subsequent stratification of society.
  - Language: Explains the origin of the Oriya language from Māgadhi Apabhramśa and its sisterhood with Bengali, noting its phonetic consistency and grammatical structure, despite a complex script.
- Chapter 2: Prehistoric Orissa:
  - Part 1: The Lithic Age: Details the Palaeolithic, Microlithic, and Neolithic periods. It extensively discusses the discovery of palaeolithic implements in Mayurbhanj, particularly at Kuliana, analyzing their types, modes of occurrence, and the geological context. It also mentions the limited evidence for the Microlithic and Neolithic periods in Orissa.
  - Part 2: The Metallic Period (Copper Age): Covers the discovery of copper implements in Orissa and adjoining regions, discussing their cultural aspects and the ongoing debate about their association with Indo-Aryan migration or refugees from Harappa.
- Chapter 3: Traditional History as Depicted in Ancient Indian Literature:
  - Brahmanic Literature: Traces references to Kalinga, Utkala, and Odra in the Vedas, Brahmanas, Purānas, Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Dharma Sūtras, and works by Pāṇini and Kautilya. It highlights the mythical origins and the early perception of Kalinga as an "impure" land by some Brāhmanical texts, while also noting positive references.
  - Buddhist Literature: Details mentions of Kalinga in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikāya, Dīgha Nikāya, Mahāvastu, and Jātakas, emphasizing Dantapura as the capital and Kalinga's status as a significant kingdom, sometimes even subordinate to Kāśī.
  - Jaina Literature: Discusses references to Kalinga concerning Jaina Tirthankaras like Aranātha, Pārśvanātha, and Mahāvīra, highlighting Kanchanapura and Dantapura as important cities and the prevalence of Jainism in the region.
  - Greek Literature: Presents accounts from classical writers like Pliny and Ptolemy regarding Kalinga, its geographical extent, capital city (Parthalis), military strength, and ports.
Book II: Kalinga Under the Magadhan Imperialism
- Chapter 4: The Nanda Rule in Kalinga: Discusses the puranic tradition of Mahāpadma Nanda's conquest of Kalinga. It analyzes the Hāthigumphā inscription's references to "Nandarāja," the prevalence of Jainism in Kalinga during this period, administrative and public works attributed to the Nandas, and their art and architecture, including the identification of the "Kalinga-Jina" image.
- Chapter 5: Kalinga Under the Mauryas: Examines the period after the Nandas, discussing the potential conquests by Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusāra, and then focuses on Aśoka's conquest of Kalinga in his eighth regnal year. It highlights the devastating impact of the war on Kalinga and Aśoka's subsequent remorse and conversion to Buddhism, which fundamentally altered his policy.
- Chapter 6: Administration of Kalinga Under the Mauryas: Delves into the administrative structure established by Aśoka in Kalinga, based on the special Kalinga Edicts. It discusses the appointment of a Kumāra Viceroy, the administrative officers involved (Mahāmātras, Rajjukas, Prādeśikas, Yuktas, etc.), and the administrative divisions.
- Chapter 7: Administration of Kalinga (Continued): Continues the discussion on administration, focusing on the administration of justice, jail administration, city administration (Tosali and Samāpā), and forest administration. It emphasizes Aśoka's reforms aimed at welfare, justice, and conciliation, particularly towards forest tribes.
- Chapter 8: Maurya Art in Kalinga: Focuses on the artistic achievements of the Maurya period in Kalinga, with a detailed analysis of the Dhauli Elephant, discussing its artistic valuation, possible symbolism (related to Buddha's life), and its uniqueness within Mauryan art. It also briefly touches upon the period from Aśoka's successors to the end of the Kāṇva rule, noting the lack of specific information about Kalinga during the Śunga and Kāṇva periods, suggesting its likely independence.
Book III: The Epoch of Khāravela
- Chapter 9: Mahāmeghavāhana Khāravela:
  - Political Condition: Describes the complex political landscape of India in the centuries preceding the Christian era, marked by internal strife and foreign invasions, with the rise of powers like the Andhras and the Mahāmeghavāhanas.
  - Sources for Historicity: Discusses the primary source, the Hāthigumphā inscription, detailing its condition, size, system of spacing, authorship, and composition, along with the challenges in its interpretation.
  - Mahāmeghavāhana Dynasty: Analyzes the dynastic name and its potential etymological meanings, connecting it to state elephants and possibly Indra worship.
  - Predecessors of Khāravela: Explores the silence in the Hāthigumphā inscription regarding his predecessors and various theories, including the possibility of matriarchal influence and the interpretation of "tatiya Kalinga-rāja-vase purisa-yuge."
  - Lineage of Khāravela: Discusses the controversial term "Aira" (Aila/Aida) and its connection to the Lunar dynasty, as well as the "Cheti/Chedi" lineage, linking Khāravela to King Vasu Uparichara.
- Chapter 10: Date of Khāravela: Presents a detailed analysis of the scholarly debate surrounding Khāravela's date, examining internal evidence like references to Sātakarņi and Brihaspatimitra, circumstantial evidence from palaeography, titles, "kāvya" style, Sisupalgarh excavations, and the absence of Khāravela's coins, ultimately suggesting a date in the last quarter of the 1st century BC.
- Chapter 11: Childhood of Khāravela: Interprets the Hāthigumphā inscription's description of Khāravela's childhood and princely games, emphasizing his auspicious bodily marks and his promising destiny as a future ruler.
- Chapter 12: Marriage of Khāravela: Discusses the marriage of Khāravela, mentioning his Chief Queen from the Vajiraghara family, possibly linked to the Gardabhila dynasty, and the implications for Khāravela's own identity and the political alliances of the time.
- Chapter 13: Coronation of Khāravela: Analyzes the details of Khāravela's coronation, his age at accession (24th year), the duration of his princely training, and the interpretation of the coronation ceremony, suggesting a blend of Vedic and possibly Jain influences.
- Chapter 14: Conquests of Khāravela: Provides a year-by-year account of Khāravela's military campaigns based on the Hāthigumphā inscription, detailing his expeditions against Sātakarņi, the Vidyādharas, Rathikas and Bhojakas, the Yavana king Dimita, Magadha (including Bahasatimita), and the Pandya king, as well as his northern campaigns.
- Chapter 15: Khāravela's Administration: Discusses Khāravela's administrative policies, emphasizing adherence to traditional methods, pleasing the populace through various measures (festivities, tax remissions, public works), and mentions of royal servants.
- Chapter 16: Military Force of Khāravela: Examines the numerical strength and equipment of Khāravela's army, drawing inferences from the inscription and historical accounts, and discussing the possible ferocious nature of his troops.
- Chapter 17: The City of Kalinga: Investigates the capital city of Kalinga-nagara, analyzing its plan, features (gates, walls, palaces, canals, temples), and exploring various identifications, with a strong leaning towards Sisupalgarh.
- Chapter 18: Wealth and Prosperity of Kalinga: Details the economic prosperity of Kalinga under Khāravela, citing evidence of a full treasury, ample food supplies, revenues, taxes, forest wealth, foreign trade, and the nature of money in circulation.
- Chapter 19: Religious Policy of Khāravela: Highlights Khāravela's adherence to Jainism while also demonstrating religious toleration towards other faiths, honoring all sects, repairing temples of various deities, and his role as a benefactor to all religious orders.
- Chapter 20: Estimate of Khāravela: Provides an overall assessment of Khāravela's reign, positioning him as a significant local ruler, a precursor to the Guptas in some respects, and a ruler who pleased his people and fostered arts and religion, although his empire's longevity was limited.
- Chapter 21: Cave Architecture in Orissa: Discusses the rock-cut caves of Udayagiri-Khandagiri, analyzing their architecture, sculpture (zoology and flora), and their connection to Jainism, particularly the Hāthigumphā, Svargapuri-Mañchapuri, Ananta Gumphā, Rāni Gumphā, Ganesa Cave, and others. It discusses the possible dating of these caves and their artistic significance.

Key Contributions and Arguments:

Comprehensive Approach: Mittal integrates literary, archaeological, and epigraphic sources to build a narrative of Orissa's early history.
Focus on Khāravela: The book places significant emphasis on King Khāravela, using the Hāthigumphā inscription as a primary source to reconstruct his reign, conquests, administration, and religious policies.
Dating Khāravela: The book actively engages with the scholarly debate on Khāravela's dating, ultimately favoring a late 1st-century BC timeframe based on a combination of internal and circumstantial evidence.
Interdisciplinary Analysis: It connects geographical factors, prehistoric findings, traditional accounts, political events, and artistic developments to provide a holistic view of early Orissa.
Emphasis on Jainism: The book highlights the significant role of Jainism in the religious and cultural landscape of Kalinga during this period.

**Overall, "An Early History of Orissa" by Amarchand Mittal is a scholarly work that provides a detailed and nuanced exploration of Orissa's ancient past, with a particular focus on the influential reign of King Khāravela.**This is a comprehensive summary of Dr. Amarchand Mittal's "An Early History of Orissa," focusing on the period from the earliest times up to the first century BC. The book aims to provide a detailed and linked account of Orissa's early history, incorporating later discoveries and filling gaps in existing scholarship.

Core Focus and Scope:

Period Covered: From the prehistoric era up to the reign of King Khāravela in the closing years of the 1st century BC.
Geographical Definition of Orissa: The region between the Suvarnarekhā River in the north, the Godāvari River in the south, the hilly tracts of the region between modern Orissa and Madhya Pradesh in the west, and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
Key Objective: To reconstruct the early history of Orissa by synthesizing historical truths from legends and fables, incorporating later discoveries in history and archaeology, and providing an up-to-date account.

Structure of the Book:

The book is divided into three main parts (Books), further subdivided into fourteen chapters.

Book I: Physical Features, Pre-historical and Traditional History
- Chapter 1: Physical Features:
  - Geographical Factor: Discusses how geography shaped India and Orissa, highlighting Orissa's strategic position as a gateway between North and South India and its role in maritime trade. It also notes the favorable climate and fertile river valleys.
  - Region: Orissa is defined as a natural and strategic unit with a distinct personality due to its climate, soil, geology, people, and historical traditions.
  - Topography: Describes the three distinct geographical divisions of ancient Kalinga: the alluvial plain, the hilly tracts between the Mahanadi and Godavari, and the coastal plain to the south of Berhampur-Ganjam.
  - Rivers: Details the major rivers of Orissa like the Mahanadi, Brahmani, Vaitarni, and Suvarnarekha, explaining their impact on the deltaic region.
  - Lakes: Focuses on the Chilka Lake, describing its formation, geography, and ecological features. It also briefly mentions the Sar Lake.
  - Peoples: Discusses the various tribal groups inhabiting Orissa, including the Khonds and Savaras, and their historical mentions in literature. It also touches upon the Aryan influence and the subsequent stratification of society.
  - Language: Explains the origin of the Oriya language from Māgadhi Apabhramśa and its sisterhood with Bengali, noting its phonetic consistency and grammatical structure, despite a complex script.
- Chapter 2: Prehistoric Orissa:
  - Part 1: The Lithic Age: Details the Palaeolithic, Microlithic, and Neolithic periods. It extensively discusses the discovery of palaeolithic implements in Mayurbhanj, particularly at Kuliana, analyzing their types, modes of occurrence, and the geological context. It also mentions the limited evidence for the Microlithic and Neolithic periods in Orissa.
  - Part 2: The Metallic Period (Copper Age): Covers the discovery of copper implements in Orissa and adjoining regions, discussing their cultural aspects and the ongoing debate about their association with Indo-Aryan migration or refugees from Harappa.
- Chapter 3: Traditional History as Depicted in Ancient Indian Literature:
  - Brahmanic Literature: Traces references to Kalinga, Utkala, and Odra in the Vedas, Brahmanas, Purānas, Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Dharma Sūtras, and works by Pāṇini and Kautilya. It highlights the mythical origins and the early perception of Kalinga as an "impure" land by some Brāhmanical texts, while also noting positive references.
  - Buddhist Literature: Details mentions of Kalinga in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikāya, Dīgha Nikāya, Mahāvastu, and Jātakas, emphasizing Dantapura as the capital and Kalinga's status as a significant kingdom, sometimes even subordinate to Kāśī.
  - Jaina Literature: Discusses references to Kalinga concerning Jaina Tirthankaras like Aranātha, Pārśvanātha, and Mahāvīra, highlighting Kanchanapura and Dantapura as important cities and the prevalence of Jainism in the region.
  - Greek Literature: Presents accounts from classical writers like Pliny and Ptolemy regarding Kalinga, its geographical extent, capital city (Parthalis), military strength, and ports.
Book II: Kalinga Under the Magadhan Imperialism
- Chapter 4: The Nanda Rule in Kalinga: Discusses the puranic tradition of Mahāpadma Nanda's conquest of Kalinga. It analyzes the Hāthigumphā inscription's references to "Nandarāja," the prevalence of Jainism in Kalinga during this period, administrative and public works attributed to the Nandas, and their art and architecture, including the identification of the "Kalinga-Jina" image.
- Chapter 5: Kalinga Under the Mauryas: Examines the period after the Nandas, discussing the potential conquests by Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusāra, and then focuses on Aśoka's conquest of Kalinga in his eighth regnal year. It highlights the devastating impact of the war on Kalinga and Aśoka's subsequent remorse and conversion to Buddhism, which fundamentally altered his policy.
- Chapter 6: Administration of Kalinga Under the Mauryas: Delves into the administrative structure established by Aśoka in Kalinga, based on the special Kalinga Edicts. It discusses the appointment of a Kumāra Viceroy, the administrative officers involved (Mahāmātras, Rajjukas, Prādeśikas, Yuktas, etc.), and the administrative divisions.
- Chapter 7: Administration of Kalinga (Continued): Continues the discussion on administration, focusing on the administration of justice, jail administration, city administration (Tosali and Samāpā), and forest administration. It emphasizes Aśoka's reforms aimed at welfare, justice, and conciliation, particularly towards forest tribes.
- Chapter 8: Maurya Art in Kalinga: Focuses on the artistic achievements of the Maurya period in Kalinga, with a detailed analysis of the Dhauli Elephant, discussing its artistic valuation, possible symbolism (related to Buddha's life), and its uniqueness within Mauryan art. It also briefly touches upon the period from Aśoka's successors to the end of the Kāṇva rule, noting the lack of specific information about Kalinga during the Śunga and Kāṇva periods, suggesting its likely independence.
Book III: The Epoch of Khāravela
- Chapter 9: Mahāmeghavāhana Khāravela:
  - Political Condition: Describes the complex political landscape of India in the centuries preceding the Christian era, marked by internal strife and foreign invasions, with the rise of powers like the Andhras and the Mahāmeghavāhanas.
  - Sources for Historicity: Discusses the primary source, the Hāthigumphā inscription, detailing its condition, size, system of spacing, authorship, and composition, along with the challenges in its interpretation.
  - Mahāmeghavāhana Dynasty: Analyzes the dynastic name and its potential etymological meanings, connecting it to state elephants and possibly Indra worship.
  - Predecessors of Khāravela: Explores the silence in the Hāthigumphā inscription regarding his predecessors and various theories, including the possibility of matriarchal influence and the interpretation of "tatiya Kalinga-rāja-vase purisa-yuge."
  - Lineage of Khāravela: Discusses the controversial term "Aira" (Aila/Aida) and its connection to the Lunar dynasty, as well as the "Cheti/Chedi" lineage, linking Khāravela to King Vasu Uparichara.
- Chapter 10: Date of Khāravela: Presents a detailed analysis of the scholarly debate surrounding Khāravela's date, examining internal evidence like references to Sātakarņi and Brihaspatimitra, circumstantial evidence from palaeography, titles, "kāvya" style, Sisupalgarh excavations, and the absence of Khāravela's coins, ultimately suggesting a date in the last quarter of the 1st century BC.
- Chapter 11: Childhood of Khāravela: Interprets the Hāthigumphā inscription's description of Khāravela's childhood and princely games, emphasizing his auspicious bodily marks and his promising destiny as a future ruler.
- Chapter 12: Marriage of Khāravela: Discusses the marriage of Khāravela, mentioning his Chief Queen from the Vajiraghara family, possibly linked to the Gardabhila dynasty, and the implications for Khāravela's own identity and the political alliances of the time.
- Chapter 13: Coronation of Khāravela: Analyzes the details of Khāravela's coronation, his age at accession (24th year), the duration of his princely training, and the interpretation of the coronation ceremony, suggesting a blend of Vedic and possibly Jain influences.
- Chapter 14: Conquests of Khāravela: Provides a year-by-year account of Khāravela's military campaigns based on the Hāthigumphā inscription, detailing his expeditions against Sātakarņi, the Vidyādharas, Rathikas and Bhojakas, the Yavana king Dimita, Magadha (including Bahasatimita), and the Pandya king, as well as his northern campaigns.
- Chapter 15: Khāravela's Administration: Discusses Khāravela's administrative policies, emphasizing adherence to traditional methods, pleasing the populace through various measures (festivities, tax remissions, public works), and mentions of royal servants.
- Chapter 16: Military Force of Khāravela: Examines the numerical strength and equipment of Khāravela's army, drawing inferences from the inscription and historical accounts, and discussing the possible ferocious nature of his troops.
- Chapter 17: The City of Kalinga: Investigates the capital city of Kalinga-nagara, analyzing its plan, features (gates, walls, palaces, canals, temples), and exploring various identifications, with a strong leaning towards Sisupalgarh.
- Chapter 18: Wealth and Prosperity of Kalinga: Details the economic prosperity of Kalinga under Khāravela, citing evidence of a full treasury, ample food supplies, revenues, taxes, forest wealth, foreign trade, and the nature of money in circulation.
- Chapter 19: Religious Policy of Khāravela: Highlights Khāravela's adherence to Jainism while also demonstrating religious toleration towards other faiths, honoring all sects, repairing temples of various deities, and his role as a benefactor to all religious orders.
- Chapter 20: Estimate of Khāravela: Provides an overall assessment of Khāravela's reign, positioning him as a significant local ruler, a precursor to the Guptas in some respects, and a ruler who pleased his people and fostered arts and religion, although his empire's longevity was limited.
- Chapter 21: Cave Architecture in Orissa: Discusses the rock-cut caves of Udayagiri-Khandagiri, analyzing their architecture, sculpture (zoology and flora), and their connection to Jainism, particularly the Hāthigumphā, Svargapuri-Mañchapuri, Ananta Gumphā, Rāni Gumphā, Ganesa Cave, and others. It discusses the possible dating of these caves and their artistic significance.

Key Contributions and Arguments:

Comprehensive Approach: Mittal integrates literary, archaeological, and epigraphic sources to build a narrative of Orissa's early history.
Focus on Khāravela: The book places significant emphasis on King Khāravela, using the Hāthigumphā inscription as a primary source to reconstruct his reign, conquests, administration, and religious policies.
Dating Khāravela: The book actively engages with the scholarly debate on Khāravela's dating, ultimately suggesting a late 1st-century BC timeframe based on a combination of internal and circumstantial evidence.
Interdisciplinary Analysis: It connects geographical factors, prehistoric findings, traditional accounts, political events, and artistic developments to provide a holistic view of early Orissa.
Emphasis on Jainism: The book highlights the significant role of Jainism in the religious and cultural landscape of Kalinga during this period.

Overall, "An Early History of Orissa" by Amarchand Mittal is a scholarly work that provides a detailed and nuanced exploration of Orissa's ancient past, with a particular focus on the influential reign of King Khāravela.