Discovery Of India By Greeks

Here's a comprehensive summary of J. W. De Jong's "The Discovery of India by the Greeks," drawing from the provided text:

This essay explores the historical and cultural interactions between the Greeks and India, tracing the gradual "discovery" of India by the Greeks from the Achaemenid period through the Indo-Greek kingdoms and into later times.

Early Interactions (Achaemenid Empire):

• Persian Dominion: The Achaemenid Empire's rule over parts of Northwest India (Gandhara and the Indus Valley) for nearly two centuries laid the groundwork for early Greek awareness of India.
• Aramaic Influence: The Persians used Aramaic as their official language, and this led to the adoption of the Kharosthi script in India, adapted from the Aramaic alphabet. Aramaic was also used in inscriptions for the Iranian population within Indian territories after the fall of the Achaemenids.
• Early Greek Explorers and Writers:
  • Skylax: Sent by Darius to explore the Indus in 519 BCE.
  • Hekataios of Miletus: Wrote about India around 500 BCE, though only fragments survive.
  • Ktesias: A physician to Artaxerxes II, wrote about India, though his accounts are often considered unreliable and limited to fables, with some exceptions possible in lost parts of his work.
• Deportation to Bactria: Darius deported Greeks to Bactria (modern Afghanistan), placing them at the doorstep of India, facilitating some awareness, though accounts like Herodotus' remain largely fabulous (e.g., the "gold-digging ants" legend).

Alexander the Great's Expedition and its Aftermath:

• Increased Knowledge: Alexander's invasion in 326 BCE was a pivotal event that brought Greeks into much closer contact with India, leading to a significant increase in Greek knowledge.
• Limited Greek Rule: While Alexander conquered parts of India, Greek rule was short-lived. His generals left Northwest India by 317 BCE.
• Seleucid Relations: Seleukos I Nicator attempted to reconquer Indian provinces but was forced to cede territory to Chandragupta Maurya in 305 BCE, leading to diplomatic relations.
• Accounts of the Expedition:
  • Nearchos: Commanded Alexander's fleet and wrote a report of his travels, providing geographical information, later used by Arrian.
  • Onesikritos: A member of the expedition who wrote about his encounters, including discussions with Indian "naked philosophers" (śramaṇas).
• Impressions of Indian Sages: The Greeks were struck by the practices of Indian ascetics, notably Kalanos, who voluntarily burned himself to death. This event is thought to have impressed Pyrrho, the founder of Skepticism. Another instance is the suicide by burning of Zarmanochegas.

Megasthenes: The Most Important Classical Source:

• Ambassador to Chandragupta: Megasthenes was sent as an envoy to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan Empire, likely before 305 BCE.
• Preserved Work: His "Indica" is the most crucial classical source on India because significant portions have been preserved through quotations by later authors.
• Critical Reception: While highly valuable, Megasthenes' work has faced scrutiny. Strabo and Eratosthenes were critical, accusing him (and others like Deimachos) of fabricating fables.
• Reliability Debates: Scholars debate the reliability of Megasthenes. Some, like Barbara Timmer, view him as an excellent eyewitness but suggest he was too rationalistic to fully grasp Indian customs and lacked critical judgment in relaying oral information. Others point to discrepancies with works like the Arthaśāstra, though the dating and nature of the Arthaśāstra itself are problematic.
• Description of Palibothra: Megasthenes provided detailed descriptions of Palibothra (Pataliputra), the Mauryan capital, which have been partially verified by archaeological findings.
• Observations on Royal Life: His accounts offer unique details about the king's life, security measures, and daily activities, many of which seem to be based on direct observation.
• Indian Philosophers (Brachmanes and Sarmanes): Megasthenes' classification of Indian philosophers into Brachmanes (Brahmins) and Sarmanes (śramaṇas) offers insights into Indian religious and ascetic life, with his description of the latter (vanaprasthas) showing a good agreement with Indian sources.

Later Greek and Indian Interactions:

• Asoka's Edicts: Asoka's inscriptions mention Yavana kings (Greek kings) in his realm, indicating diplomatic contact with Hellenistic kingdoms. The discovery of bilingual (Aramaic and Greek) edicts further confirms Greek presence and administrative involvement in his empire.
• Indo-Greek Kingdoms: Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire, Greek invaders established Indo-Greek kingdoms, notably the period of King Menander.
• Milindapañha: Menander's discussions with the Buddhist philosopher Nāgasena are recorded in the Pāli text "Milindapañha," showcasing significant cultural and religious interaction.
• Greek Influence on Indian Art and Astronomy:
  • Art: The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, particularly the early Buddha statues, shows clear Greek artistic influence.
  • Astronomy: Greek astronomical terms and concepts, particularly from Ptolemy, were adopted into Indian astronomy (e.g., in the work of Varahamihira).
• Indian Influence on Greek Culture:
  • Trade and Medicine: Trade relations led to the introduction of Indian products like pepper into Greece. Indian medicinal knowledge also reached the Greeks.
  • Fables and Religious Legends: Indian fables, like the Pañcatantra, traveled to Europe through Persian and Arabic translations, influencing Western literature. The legend of Barlaam and Josaphat, a Christianized version of the Buddha's life, also spread from India to Europe.

Conclusion:

Jong argues that Greek culture had a profound and lasting influence on India, largely because Greek culture was more developed and India was more receptive during their initial contact. While Indians also influenced the Greeks, particularly in the early stages, the essay suggests the flow of influence was predominantly from Greece to India. The long history of interaction, spanning over fifteen centuries, is highlighted as a significant chapter in human history.