Dharmshastra Ka Itihas Part 5

This is a comprehensive summary of the provided Jain text, which is actually the fifth part of Pandurang Vaman Kane's "History of Dharmashastra" (धर्मशास्त्र का इतिहास), translated into Hindi. The text discusses the historical development of Dharmashastra in the light of various philosophical doctrines.

Here's a breakdown of the key themes and content covered in the provided pages:

Overall Context:

• Book: Dharmashastra ka Itihas Part 5 (पंचम भाग), Chapters 26 to 37.
• Author (Original): Bharataratna, Mahamahopadhyay, Dr. Pandurang Vaman Kane.
• Publisher: Hindi Bhavan, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh Government's Hindi Samiti).
• Translator: Arjun Chaube Kashyap, M.A.
• Focus: The volume delves into the evolution of Dharmashastra and its relationship with various philosophical and religious traditions in India.

Chapter 26: Tantric Principles and Dharmashastra (तांत्रिक सिद्धान्त एवं धर्मशास्त्र)

• Introduction: Discusses the influence of Shakta (worship of Shakti as the divine feminine) and Tantra traditions on Puranas and medieval Indian religious practices.
• Meaning of Tantra: Explores the term "Tantra," with meanings ranging from "principal subject" or "principle" to "loom" or "material/equipment." It notes that the term's specific application to a class of works might not have been prevalent in the time of Amarakosha.
• Vedic Roots: Traces the presence of terms like "Tantra" in the Vedas, initially referring to weaving looms, but later evolving to mean "principle" or "scripture." It highlights Vedic magic, spells, and curses found in the Atharvaveda, suggesting an ancient undercurrent of these practices that might have influenced later Tantric thought.
• External Influences: Discusses theories about external influences on Tantric principles, mentioning claims that Tantra originated from Chaldea or Scythia, or that Tibetan Bon religion influenced Indian Tantrism. The author critically examines these claims, particularly those relying on the Rudrayamala Tantra, suggesting that the idea of Buddha teaching Tantric practices is unlikely.
• Shaktism: Defines "Shakta" as a devotee of Shakti, tracing the prevalence of the Shakta sect across India, especially Bengal and Assam, before the 8th century CE. It notes the concept of Shakti as the primordial energy and the various names for the Goddess.
• Influence on Puranas: Mentions the reflection of Shakta traditions in Puranas like Vamana, Devi Bhagavata, Brahmanda, and Matsya.
• Co-existence and Contrast: Highlights similarities between Hindu and Buddhist Tantras but points out differences in philosophical tenets, religious outlooks, and practices. It emphasizes that while Hindu Tantra often involves the worship of Shiva and Devi, Buddhist Tantra might focus on concepts like "Prajna" (wisdom, female) and "Upaya" (method, male).
• Five "Makars": Identifies the "Pancha Makars" (Madyam, Mansam, Matsyam, Mudra, Maithunam) as central to many Tantric practices, often interpreted metaphorically in higher spiritual circles but literal in others, leading to controversy.
• Early Evidence: Notes that evidence for Buddhist Tantric texts predates Hindu Tantric texts is scarce, with Guhyasamajatantra and Manjusrimulakalpa containing later elements.
• External Influence Debated: Argues against the idea of significant Tibetan or Chinese influence on Indian Tantra, pointing to the translation of Sanskrit texts into Tibetan and Chinese and the historical flow of knowledge from India to Tibet and China.
• Rudrayamala Tantra: Mentions its textual content, including references to Chinese origins and Buddha's teachings on Tantric practices, which the author views skeptically as potentially fabricated.
• Vedic Magic: Details the presence of magic and spells in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda, including rituals for love, overcoming rivals, and warding off evil.
• Later Developments: Discusses the inclusion of Tantric elements in Puranas and Smritis, and the eventual emergence of Tantric literature with its philosophical and practical aspects.

Chapter 27: Nyasa, Mudras, Yantras, Chakras, Mandalas etc. (न्यास, मुद्राएँ, यन्त्र, चक्र, मण्डल आदि)

• Nyasa: Defines Nyasa as the ritualistic placement of deities, mantras, or seeds on the body for purification and consecration, making it suitable for worship and meditation. It lists various types like Hamsa Nyasa, Prana Nyasa, Matrika Nyasa, Mantra Nyasa, Kara Nyasa, and Anga Nyasa.
• Mudras: Explains Mudras as symbolic hand gestures or ritualistic poses used in worship and meditation, with various meanings and applications. It notes the vast number of Mudras described in different texts, some being specific to certain deities.
• Yantras: Defines Yantras as geometric diagrams used in Tantric rituals for invoking deities or achieving specific spiritual or worldly goals. It highlights their sacredness and the belief in their power to channel divine energy.
• Chakras: Discusses Chakras as energy centers within the subtle body, often depicted as lotuses with varying numbers of petals, associated with specific deities, mantras, and elemental forces. It emphasizes that these are concepts within the subtle body, not gross anatomical parts.
• Mandalas: Describes Mandalas as sacred cosmic diagrams, often circular, used for visualization and ritualistic purposes. It notes their complexity and symbolic representation of the universe.
• Relationship between Yoga and Tantra: Highlights the overlap and shared concepts between Yoga and Tantra, particularly regarding concentration, breath control, and achieving higher states of consciousness.
• Pancha Makaras: Re-iterates the five "M" elements (Madyam, Mansam, Matsyam, Mudra, Maithunam) and their various interpretations, often symbolic.
• Tantric Literature: Lists numerous published and mentioned Tantric texts from both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, providing brief context for some.
• Vedic vs. Tantric Practices: Critically examines the claim that Tantric practices have their roots in Vedic magic, noting the presence of magical elements in the Vedas but distinguishing their nature from later Tantric systems.

Chapter 28: Mimamsa and Dharmashastra (मीमांसा एवं धर्मशास्त्र)

• Introduction: Cites the Yajnavalkya Smriti listing fourteen sources of knowledge, including Mimamsa, and introduces the importance of understanding Mimamsa principles for Dharmashastra.
• Meaning and Origin of Mimamsa: Discusses the etymology and evolution of the term "Mimamsa," meaning "investigation" or "reflection," tracing its usage from Vedic times to its later application in interpreting Vedic injunctions.
• Mimamsa Principles: Explains key Mimamsa principles, such as:
  • Vedic Authority (Nityatva): The Vedas are considered eternal, self-existent, and infallible.
  • Word-Meaning Relationship (Shabda-Artha Sambandha): The connection between words and their meanings is eternal.
  • Purpose of Vedas: Primarily to provide injunctions (Vidhi) for religious duties.
  • Arthavada: Explanatory or laudatory passages that support the Vidhi.
  • Mantra: Sacred utterances with inherent power.
  • Apūrva: An unseen force or merit generated by rituals that links the action to its future result.
  • Role of Mimamsa in Dharmashastra: How Mimamsa rules of interpretation are applied to reconcile apparent contradictions in Smritis and Puranas.
• Dharmasutras and Mimamsa: Notes the early influence of Mimamsa concepts on Dharmasutras, particularly Apastamba.
• Relationship with Veda: Explains how Mimamsa aims to understand the purpose and application of Vedic injunctions.
• Sources of Dharma: Discusses the hierarchy of sources for Dharma: Shruti (Vedas), Smriti, Sadachara (customs of the virtuous), and logic/reasoning.
• Mimamsa Schools: Briefly mentions the divergence of views between Mimamsa schools, particularly Prabhakara and Kumarila.
• Vedic Interpretation: Discusses how Mimamsa provides rules for interpreting Vedic texts, resolving apparent contradictions between different Vedic passages, and understanding the relationship between rituals, their accessories, and their results.
• Historical Context: Places Mimamsa in the timeline of Indian philosophy and literature, discussing the dating of its proponents and texts.
• Critique of External Influences: Rejects the notion that Mimamsa principles were derived from external sources.

Chapter 31: Mimamsa Principles (पूर्वमीमांसा के कुछ मौलिक सिद्धान्त)

• Vedic Authority: Reiterates the Mimamsa stance on the eternal and infallible nature of the Vedas.
• Word-Meaning Relationship: Emphasizes the eternal connection between words and their meanings.
• Apūrva: Explains the concept of Apurva as the unseen link between action and its result.
• Mimamsa's Purpose: The primary aim is to understand Dharma, which is defined through Vedic injunctions (Vidhi).
• Interpretation Rules: Discusses rules for interpreting Vedic texts, including Sruti, Linga, Vakya, Prakarana, Sthana, and Samakhya, and how to resolve contradictions.
• Mimamsa and Dharmashastra: Highlights how Mimamsa logic and principles were adopted and applied by Dharmashastra writers to interpret Smritis and Puranas.
• Critique of "Arthavada": Explains how Mimamsa distinguishes between mandatory injunctions (Vidhi) and laudatory passages (Arthavada), with Vidhi being the primary source of Dharma.
• Role of Smritis: Discusses the relationship between Smritis and Vedas, with Smritis being considered valid as long as they do not contradict Shruti and are based on virtuous customs.
• Kalivarjya: Touches upon practices forbidden in the Kali Yuga, some of which were permissible in earlier ages, a concept that reflects the dynamic nature of religious and social norms over time.

Chapter 32: Yoga and Dharmashastra (योग एवं धर्मशास्त्र)

• Yoga's Presence in Early Literature: Traces the concept of Yoga from the Vedas and Upanishads, noting its presence in texts like the Katha, Mundaka, and Shvetashvatara Upanishads.
• Yoga Sutras: Discusses Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, its structure into four chapters (Samadhi, Sadhana, Vibhuti, Kaivalya), and its emphasis on the control of mental modifications (Vritti Nirodha).
• Austerity and Discipline: Highlights the emphasis on Tapas (austerity), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and controlling senses as key practices.
• Philosophical Basis: Explains the philosophical underpinnings of Yoga, including the dualistic concept of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter), and the ultimate goal of Kaivalya (liberation).
• Contrast with Samkhya: Notes similarities and differences with Samkhya, particularly Yoga's incorporation of Ishvara (God) as a special Purusha, which is absent in classical Samkhya.
• Influence on Dharmashastra: Explains how Yoga practices and principles, like Asana, Pranayama, and Meditation, were incorporated into Dharmashastra and Tantric traditions for achieving spiritual goals and even worldly powers.
• Purushartha: Discusses the concept of Purushartha (human goals) and how Yoga aims to transcend worldly desires for ultimate liberation.
• Modern Interpretations: Briefly touches upon modern interpretations of Yoga, like those of Sri Aurobindo, and the debate regarding the historical context of Yoga and its practices.
• Yama and Niyama: Details the ethical restraints (Yama) and observances (Niyama) as foundational to Yoga.
• Pranayama: Explains Pranayama (breath control) and its importance in Yoga, noting the different types and their significance.
• Siddhis: Discusses the concept of Siddhis (supernatural powers) attainable through Yoga, but also the Yogic philosophical view that these should be transcended for ultimate liberation.

Chapter 33: Logic and Dharmashastra (तर्क एवं धर्मशास्त्र)

• Role of Logic (Tarka): Emphasizes that logic is considered a valid means of acquiring knowledge, especially for understanding Dharma and resolving ambiguities in Vedic and Smriti texts.
• Mimamsa's Contribution: Highlights Mimamsa as a system that developed logical tools for Vedic interpretation and its influence on Dharmashastra in establishing rules for legal and religious reasoning.
• Sources of Dharma: Reinforces the Mimamsa hierarchy of sources for Dharma: Shruti, Smriti, Sadachara, and logic (Tarka).
• Types of Arguments: Briefly touches upon logical reasoning, including valid arguments (pramana) and fallacies (hetvabhasa).
• Mimamsa Rules of Interpretation: Explains key Mimamsa rules used in interpreting Dharmashastra texts, such as:
  • Niyama and Parisankhya: Distinguishing between mandatory rules and prohibitory rules that restrict choices.
  • Anuṣaṅga: The principle of extending meanings or rituals from one context to another based on textual connections.
  • Vakyabheda: The prohibition of splitting a single sentence or command into multiple distinct meanings, which could lead to contradictions.
  • Adharanyaya: The principle of using a representative item when the primary item is unavailable.
  • General vs. Specific: How general rules are understood in the context of specific exceptions or applications.
• Reconciliation of Contradictions: Discusses how Mimamsa principles are used to resolve apparent contradictions between Vedic passages and Smritis, and even between different Smritis.
• Importance of Mimamsa for Dharmashastra: Concludes that Mimamsa provides the foundational logical framework for interpreting and systematizing Dharmashastra.

This summary attempts to cover the extensive material presented in the provided text, highlighting the core arguments and discussions within each chapter.