Concepts On Parisaha And Tapa In Jainism - Book Summary

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Introduction: The Dual Pillars of Jain Ascetic Discipline

The book establishes that Jain ethical discipline rests on two fundamental principles: the householder (Sravaka) and the monk (Muni). Jain Ācāryas meticulously differentiated the observances for each, preventing the confusion of their respective obligations. While householders aim to partially alleviate himsa (violence), monks strive for its complete negation. This distinction is crucial for understanding Parisaha and Tapa, as these concepts primarily relate to the life of the ascetic.

The monastic life, characterized by complete renunciation, allows for the extirpation of inauspicious states of mind (bhāvas) and the total eradication of vice. This leads to the cessation of karmic influx (asrava) and the experience of complete cessation of karmas (samvara). Asceticism also exemplifies auspicious activity (shubha yoga), meditation (shubha dhyana), and pure disposition (shubha leshya), which are rarely found unmixed with their opposites in the householder's life.

Crucially, asceticism is not about withdrawing from action but from himsa. It involves transforming mundane actions into supramundane ones that inherently avoid violence. Even advanced asceticism, while aiming for ahimsa, can be hindered by subtle passions. Perfect realization of ahimsa is ultimately achieved through mystical experience. Therefore, for the monk, conquering Parisaha (afflictions) and practicing Tapa (austerities) are integral obligations, essential for detachment from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). Facing Parisaha with inner conviction and fortitude leads to jubilation, while spirited austerity cultivates inner detachment and unalloyed happiness.

Parisaha: Their Enumeration and Exposition

Parisaha are defined as afflictions that must be endured to remain on the path of stopping and dissociating karmas. The text enumerates twenty-two types of Parisaha, and the monk's attitude towards each is detailed:

Hunger (Kṣudha) & Thirst (Tṛṣā): The monk accepts faultless food and water, but if they are unavailable, they remain undisturbed by hunger and thirst. They avoid receiving food at improper times or places and remain occupied with self-study and meditation, preferring non-obtainment over improper obtainment.
Cold (Shita) & Heat (Uṣṇa): Monks renounce external protections against cold and heat. They remain indifferent to their dwelling places and steadfast in their spiritual pursuit even when troubled by extreme temperatures.
Insect-bite (Dańsa-masaka): The monk, unperturbed by insects, remains focused on spiritual advancement.
Nudity (Nagnatā): A monk, naked like a child, transcending lustful thoughts and observing chastity, conquers this Parisaha. They do not lament the loss of clothes or desire new ones, accepting nakedness as a natural phase.
Ennui (Arati): The monk subjugates feelings of boredom and dissatisfaction arising from sensory control, ailments, or difficult ascetic circumstances.
Woman (Strī): The monk resists seduction by beautiful forms, smiles, or amorous glances of women.
Walking (Carya): The monk bears hardships like sharp pebbles and thorns on the path while walking according to ascetic rules.
Sitting (Niṣadya): The monk sits in difficult places like burial grounds or caves, remaining unafraid of even a lion's roar.
Sleeping-place (Shayya): Even when sleeping on rough surfaces after exertion, the monk's mind remains unruffled and occupied with auspicious thoughts.
Abuse (Akrośa): The monk maintains indifference to reviles and remonstrations, remaining mentally undisturbed.
Attack (Vadha): The monk retains serenity even if their body is attacked or harmed.
Begging (Yacana): The monk does not meanly ask for food, lodging, or medicine, even when facing death.
Non-obtainment (Alābha): The monk maintains mental placidity and composure when food or other necessities are not obtained.
Disease (Roga): The monk endures diseases with fortitude without neglecting their duties.
Pricking of Grass (Tṛṇasparśa): The monk remains undisturbed by bodily discomfort from thorns or pebbles, always engaged in non-violence towards all beings.
Dirt (Mala): Accumulation of dirt on the body does not cause mental disturbance, as the monk focuses on cleansing the soul.
Respect (Satkara-Purasakāra): The monk is neither disturbed nor attracted by respectful or disrespectful attitudes of others.
Conceit of Knowledge (Prajñā): The monk avoids pride and arrogance arising from their knowledge.
Lack of Knowledge (Ajñāna): The monk does not succumb to despondency when failing to acquire knowledge or inner illumination despite severe austerities.
Slack Belief (Adarśana): The monk's faith in the doctrine remains unshaken even if austerities do not yield immediate spiritual gains.

Distinction Between Parisahas and Austerities (Tapa)

Origin: Parisaha occur against the monk's will, whereas austerities are undertaken willingly.
Nature: Parisaha can be caused by others or circumstances, while austerities are conscious resolutions.
Value: Parisaha have enduring value as tests, while austerities have pursuing value as active spiritual practices.
Role: Parisaha are temporary obstacles, while austerities are indispensable components of the path to liberation.
Effect: Austerities enable the equanimous endurance of Parisaha.

Nature and Kind of Tapa (Austerity)

Tapa is fundamentally the renunciation and rejection of desire, considered the soul's enemy. Its ultimate aim is the actualization of the Triple Jewels (right belief, right knowledge, right conduct) and the attainment of soul freedom, tranquility, and equality. Jainism recognizes both external and internal austerities:

1. External Austerities (Six Types): These involve physical renunciation and are accessible even to those not fully spiritually converted.

Anasana (Fasting): Abstinence from food for a period or until death. It aids self-control, reduces attachment, annihilates karma, facilitates meditation, and is performed for spiritual, not mundane, goals. It's the renunciation of both food and attachment to it.
Avamaudarya (Eating Less): Not consuming a full meal, reducing intake from the standard quantity. This aids sense control, sleep reduction, and the successful practice of dharma.
Vrttiparisankhyāna (Controlled Alms-eating): Predetermining the number of houses to visit, the manner of food acceptance, its type, or the giver. Adherence to these conditions uproots desire for food.
Rasaparityāga (Abandoning Tasty Foods): Abstaining from certain food items (milk, ghee, oil, etc.) or tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, etc.) to subdue senses and facilitate self-study.
Viviktasayyāśana (Living in Seclusion): Choosing secluded places free from distractions like women, eunuchs, or depraved individuals, conducive to meditation, self-study, and chastity.
Kāyakleśa (Bodily Austerities): Enduring physical discomfort through uneasy postures or severe practices like staying in the sun, aimed at alleviating attachment to pleasure.

External austerities are justified only when they contribute to inner spiritual advancement; otherwise, they are considered lost effort. They should enhance spiritual convictions rather than cause mental disquietude.

2. Internal Austerities (Six Types): These involve inner curbing of the mind.

Prayascitta (Atonement/Penance): Seeking freedom from committed transgressions. True prayascitta involves not repeating the fault, even under severe duress. It encompasses various forms like confession (alocana), self-condemnation (pratikramana), renouncing misused objects (viveka), engaging in self-observation (kayotsarga), and practicing external austerities (tapa).
Vinaya (Humility/Reverence): This involves control of senses, eradication of passions, and holding reverence for the enlightened. It leads to progress, recognition, friendship, and inner peace. It has five forms: reverence for right belief (Darśana), right knowledge (Jñāna), right conduct (Cāritra), austerities (Tapa), and outward respect (Upacāra).
Vaiyāvṛttya (Service): Rendering service to saints, especially when they are afflicted by disease or hardship, to uproot feelings of aversion and reveal affection for the spiritual path.
Svadhyāya (Self-Study/Scriptural Study): This involves faultlessly imparting knowledge, clarifying doubts, deep contemplation of meaning, memorization, and moral preaching. It enriches intellect, refines spiritual efforts, instills detachment, and helps perpetuate religion. It is considered the most important of the twelve types of austerities.
Vyutsarga (Renunciation): Relinquishment of both external (possessions) and internal (passions) attachments.
Dhyāna (Meditation): The concentration of the mind on a particular object. All disciplinary practices form a background for meditation, which is the culmination of right conduct and the direct path to the supreme good.

Dhyāna (Meditation)

Meditation is defined as the concentration of the mind on a single object. It can be auspicious (prasasta) or inauspicious (apraśasta).

Apraśasta Dhyāna (Inauspicious Meditation):
- Ārta-Dhyāna (Sorrowful Meditation): Dwelling on thoughts arising from anguish and affliction. It includes:
  - Anishta-samyogaja: Anxiety over undesirable associations.
  - Ishta-viyogaja: Anxiety over parting with agreeable objects.
  - Vedana-janita: Dwelling on bodily pain due to illness.
  - Nidāna-janita: Yearning for sensual pleasures and plotting against enemies. Ārta-Dhyāna is natural to empirical souls, leading to subhuman births.
- Raudra-Dhyāna (Fierce Meditation): Characterized by cruelty and violence. It includes:
  - Himsānandi: Delight in killing and oppression.
  - Mrsānandi: Delighting in falsehood, deceit, and harming others.
  - Cauryānandi: Dexterity and zeal in theft.
  - Visāyanandi: Guarding sensory pleasures and paraphernalia. Raudra-Dhyāna is associated with undisciplined individuals and intense passions, leading to intense suffering.
Prasasta Dhyāna (Auspicious Meditation): This type is conducive to Moksha (liberation).
- Pre-requisites: Ardent desire for liberation, detachment from worldly objects, a tranquil mind, self-control, stability, sense-control, patience, and endurance. Avoidance of worldly, philosophical, and mental distractions, and consideration of suitable time, place, and posture are essential. Mental purity is paramount. The practice of four virtues—Maitri (friendship), Pramoda (appreciation), Karuna (compassion), and Madhyastha (indifference)—is also crucial.
- Process of Dhyāna: The text describes several processes, including concentrating the mind on specific points in the body and contemplating the self's true nature. A key concept is Pratyāhāra (withdrawal of senses and mind).
- Fourfold Classification of Dhyāna:
  - Pindastha-dhyāna: Contemplation involving visualization of physical or cosmic elements (e.g., earth, fire, water, air, soul) within the body.
  - Padastha-dhyāna: Meditation using sacred syllables and mantras.
  - Rūpastha-dhyāna: Meditating on the divine qualities and powers of the Arahantas.
  - Rūpātita-dhyāna: Meditation on the attributes of the Siddha, realizing the self as blissful, pure consciousness.
- Dharma-Dhyāna (Righteous Meditation): Prepares the ground for higher spiritual ascent and cleanses the mind of inauspicious dispositions. Its four types are:
  - Ajña-vicaya: Adhering to the teachings of the Arahanta with intellectual clarity.
  - Apāya-vicaya: Pondering the means of emancipating the soul from worldly suffering and spiritual welfare.
  - Vipāka-Vicaya: Reflecting on the effects of karmas.
  - Sansthāna-vicaya: Reflecting on the nature and form of the universe.
- Sukla-Dhyāna (Pure Meditation): The highest form of meditation, achieved after the destruction or subsidence of passions. It leads to omniscience and liberation. The four types of Sukla-Dhyāna represent progressive stages of mental and physical sublimation, culminating in the soul's disembodied existence.

Conclusion:

The book systematically explains Parisaha and Tapa as integral to the Jain path of spiritual purification and liberation. It highlights the monk's rigorous dedication to overcoming afflictions and practicing austerities, both internal and external, to shed karmas and realize the soul's true, luminous nature. The detailed exposition of meditation underscores its pivotal role in achieving this ultimate goal.